REDD Research Articles

Uncovering REDD Plus in Brazil

This article delves into the evolution of Brazil’s REDD+ architecture. We explore how, despite initial challenges like the lack of a global consensus and the complexities of multi-level negotiations, Brazil has transformed REDD+ into a “boundary object”—a concept that bridges diverse institutions. Consequently, a rich tapestry of institutional arrangements has emerged for Brazilian REDD+ projects. The study, drawing on interviews, literature reviews, and action research, sheds light on a critical aspect: the reliance on auditing firms for project reports. This dependence, the research finds, can introduce inconsistencies, making it difficult to accurately assess project compliance with established standards. By tracing REDD+ from its international negotiation roots to its current operationalization in Brazil, this article aims to illuminate key insights into the mechanism itself.

REDD implementation for greenhouse gas reduction and climate change mitigation in Hyrcanian forests: a case study of the Kojoor Watershed, Northern Iran

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) is a specific strategy for combating deforestation and forest degradation to alleviate the effects of climate change. In this study, the potential greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction resulting from the implementation of a REDD project is estimated. Changes in forest cover throughout the years 1985, 1990, 1995, 2000, 2010, 2015, and 2020 were analyzed using time-series Landsat imagery (TM, ETM + , and OLI) and a random forest algorithm. Multilayer perceptron neural networks were used to model the transition potential of the forest cover, which were then predicted via Markov chain analysis. The change detection analysis revealed two discernible patterns in forest cover dynamics. Between 1985 and 2000, a notable decrease in forest cover was seen, whereas from 2000 to 2020, it significantly increased. The results suggested that the absence of REDD implementation would result in the deforestation of approximately 199,569 hectares of forest cover between 2020 and 2050, leading to the release of 1,995,695 tCO2e of emissions into the atmosphere. However, with the implementation of REDD, these emissions would be reduced to 405,512 tCO2e, effectively preventing the release of 1,590,183 tCO2e of emissions into the upper atmosphere. This study demonstrates that the implementation of REDD projects can be an effective strategy for reducing GHG emissions and mitigating climate change in the Hyrcanian forests.

Climate finance across sub-Saharan Africa: Decision trees and network flows

The structure of climate finance flows from donors (multilateral sources) to recipients (sub-Saharan African countries) was studied. This is the first study to provide a comprehensive network structure of the climate finance flows into Africa, based on the global public climate finance governance system. Network theory and decision tree techniques were employed. The results obtained generally fit the multilateral funding units (MFUs) into two categories: central funding units (CFUs), which simultaneously attend to the climate-related projects of many African countries, and the boundary funding units (BFUs), which cater to only a few countries at once. An isolated region with no BFUs was identified. African countries within this group could be more exposed to climate financial risk as they rely on only the CFUs. In general, with the exception of mitigation REDD (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) climate finance, a disproportionate distribution of climate themes, with particular reference to adaptation finance, was observed across sub-Saharan Africa. This has real implications for equitable resource allocation of climate funds. The need for African-bred region-wide MFUs is recommended.

The Moisture Content and Absorption Levels of Carbon Dioxide in Binuang Bini (Octomeles sumatrana Miq) Trees For Climate Change Management

Binuang bini (Octomeles sumatrana Miq) is a fast-growing tree with numerous economic benefits, such as the provision of wood for carpentry purposes, building boards, water management, and absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2). Therefore, this tree species has great potential and needs to be included in Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)+'s mitigation program to tackle climate change. In its development, REDD+ has made it possible to carry out carbon trading in the world. Therefore, countries capable of performing protective functions and carry out reforestation, afforestation, and restoration, have the opportunity to be involved in world carbon trading. This study aims to determine the moisture content and carbon absorption rate of Binuang bini trees as a first step to regulate the allometric equation using destructive and laboratory analysis. The results show that the water content in the roots, leaves, as well as the base, middle, and tip of the stem were: 73.69%, 68.39%, 65.59%, 61.22%, and 66.26%, respectively. Furthermore, the sample test results indicate a very close relationship between carbon concentration and absorbance in the O. sumatrana tree with a simple linear regression equation: Y = 0.002X + 0.0593 with R2 = 0.9896. Therefore, this regression equation can be used to calculate the carbon concentration sample for the O. sumatrana tree fraction. The carbon content in 3 tree samples with a breast height diameter of 9.24 cm, 10.08 cm, and 11.68 cm was 2,585 kg. 2,913 kg, and 4,654 kg, respectively. In addition, the carbon sequestration for each tree diameter per year is 1.581 kg year-1, 1,782 kg year-1and 2,847 kg year-1, respectively.

Comprehensive Overview of REDD+ in India: Status, Opportunities and Challenges

Climate change is a worldwide issue with detrimental effects on ecosystems and human well-being. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) is a worldwide policy tool for combating climate change by reducing emissions from the forestry sector and has received widespread attention. Since the program's inception, India has been a strong advocate for REDD+ and its activities. The goal of this research is to evaluate India's current REDD+ readiness. India is the fourth largest CO2 emitter in the world, accounting for 7% of global CO2 emissions. India's emission trajectory shows the country's ever-increasing CO2 emission trend, with an annual average increase rate of 5-6 percent. India has a large geographical area and forest cover, and it holds 7,124.6 million tons of carbon stock. Forests are traditionally managed through a participatory approach, which is similar to REDD+ activities. India has made significant progress toward REDD+ implementation by developing a national REDD+ strategy, enacting consistent laws and regulations, and demonstrating accountability and monitoring of national forest carbon. However, several issues, including forest dependency, community rights, capacity building, policies, and finance, should be carefully addressed to overcome hurdles in REDD+ implementation.

Realizing the Opportunities of REDD+

This article aims to identify and realize opportunities for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) through consideration of gender issues during the development and implementation of Papua New Guinea’s first National Forest Inventory (NFI). To improve the planning and management of forests, the agenda is to achieve sustainability of ecosystem services, uncover economic and social values, and contribute to combating climate change and biodiversity loss at the global level. In the context of the NFI, we canvass three thematic areas of forest practice which, in assimilating women’s roles, knowledge, and interests, promise a positive impact on economic efficiency and development. They are (1) women fostering the reduction of emissions from deforestation, forest degradation, and other management objectives, which include conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks or REDD+; (2) women and sustainable forest management; and (3) women in community forestry. The conclusion gauges the general role of women in forestry and summarizes future research directions, through policy recommendations, and technological and institutional interventions.

Comparative evaluation of forestry carbon baseline between North Korea and Mongolia from Google Earth

AbstractThis comparative empirical study on North Korea and Mongolia was conducted to demonstrate how satellite imagery extracted from Google Earth can be used to estimate the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) baseline. Forests in North Korea are eight times more densely distributed (8 471 787 hectares, 69.6% of its total land area) than that of Mongolia (12 842 624 hectares, only 8% of its total land area). Forests in North Korea have up to 10 times more carbon storage capacity (e.g. above‐ground biomass of Pinus koraiensis under the category of the temperate continental forest, IPCC Guideline: 58.23 ton) than that of Mongolia (e.g. above‐ground biomass of coniferous in boreal tundra woodland: 5 ton). Results are expected to be used as objective basic data in the process of introducing REDD+ to North Korea by verifying sharp differences between North Korea and Mongolia. The study could help companies preparing for carbon offset ventures in North Korea since it provides evidence for a more cost‐effective carbon credit than in Mongolia despite less initial investment and maintenance cost for forest plantation.

Can combining two environmental services under a single PES program result in better environmental outcomes and lower costs?

AbstractThis paper develops an integrated framework for modeling payment for ecosystem services (PES) mechanisms that deliver multiple environmental services. Specifically, under a community‐led PES, forest conservation is promoted to deliver carbon and stream water benefits. The upstream community is paid for avoided fuelwood harvesting through a United Nations programme on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) program, whereas additional income is generated from water sales to the downstream communities. A bio‐economic model derives optimal level of fuelwood harvesting, which in conjunction with the changing species composition of forests, streamflow hydrology and fire risks, impacts on the carbon and water generation potential of the PES project. Results indicate that forest conservation outcomes are better when water and carbon services are combined, however overall cost to the program is lower under a carbon‐based PES. Changing species composition of forests creates tradeoffs between water and carbon benefits. Forest fires further challenge the viability of PES schemes through reducing streamflow and carbon sequestration potential.Recommendations for Resource Managers Linking two or more environmental services under a single payment for ecosystem services (PES) scheme could improve forest conservation through making it more attractive to the participating communities. PES programs that combine multiple environmental services become economically attractive to participating communities through increasing their incomes. For instance, water and carbon driven services complement each other due to the overlapping benefits from improving forest biomass. However, fire risks can lower the benefits from PES and dissuade community participation. Similarly, the ecological and hydrological dimensions of PES projects that offer carbon and water benefits need to be understood and incorporated within PES framework design to enhance their durability. Conservation of mixed forests is more responsive to water‐based PES payments, in comparison to monoculture oak forests, however, mixed forests are also more vulnerable to degradation in absence of cooking fuel subsidies.

Comparing the Environmental Integrity of Emission Reductions from REDD Programs with Renewable Energy Projects

Reducing deforestation and forest degradation presents a climate-change mitigation opportunity that is critical to meeting the Paris Agreement goals, and to achieving reductions in the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) provides developing countries with results-based financial incentives for reducing deforestation and forest degradation through either non-market payments (payments without generation of carbon credits), or market-based mechanisms (carbon credits). REDD credits have been recently accepted to be used in offsetting programs (e.g., CORSIA) and are being considered under Article 6. However, various publications have questioned whether carbon credits from REDD should be accepted under market-based mechanisms, and have identified issues regarding their environmental integrity and their ability to offset emissions from other sectors. In recent years, REDD implementation has moved from the project level to the national or subnational (jurisdictional) level, and is addressing some of the concerns that have been raised for project-level interventions regarding the robustness of baselines and leakage, for example. In this paper we compare the environmental integrity of credits from REDD programs with that from on-grid renewable energy projects by examining aspects related to permanence, additionality, baselines, uncertainty, and leakage. We show that the environmental integrity of emission reductions sourced from REDD programs has unique strengths, and that those sourced from renewable energy projects have weaknesses of their own. Probably due to a lack of understanding of the respective weaknesses and strengths of these two sources of credits, the emission reductions from REDD programs have been historically questioned and subjected to a level of scrutiny that has not been made with emission reductions from other sectors, such as renewable energy projects. Recognizing the strengths and weaknesses of emission reductions from both types should help decision makers and carbon standards recognize the high quality of emission reductions from REDD programs, and rationalize the current requirements or restrictions imposed.

Practices of development assistance and climate change mitigation in reshaping the Mozambican REDD+ strategy

ABSTRACTThis paper studies how the practices of climate change governance and development assistance have reshaped the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) process in Mozambique. We look at how the original goals of the Mozambican REDD+ strategy changed in the interplay of different governance-related practices, both those originating locally and nationally, and those coming from international organisations. The paper is based on the frameworks of multilevel governance and practice theory. We identify six combinations of practices that are relevant in the REDD+ programmes and projects. Three of them are incorporated in the general idea of sustainability, including practices of promoting environmental conservation, economic growth and social justice/development, while the remaining three practices are connected to climate-mitigation practices, for which the frame is defined in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

A Review Paper on the Role of Terrestrial Carbon Stocks for Climate Change Mitigation Mechanisms

Global warming is among the greatest terrible horrors of the modern times. The global carbon cycle is taking place in three main reservoirs (the oceans, the atmosphere, and terrestrial systems), which store carbon in different forms and varying amounts. The forest ecosystems have large potential to act as a temporary and long-term carbon (C) pool. Global forest vegetation stores 283 Gt of carbon in its biomass, 38 Gt in dead wood and 317 Gt in soils (top 30 cm) and litter. Globally, the litter C pool accounts for an estimated 5% (43 Pg) of all forest ecosystem C stocks. Agroforestry practices can reduce or remove significant amounts of GHGs through increased carbon storage in biomass above-ground and below-ground and in soil organic carbon. Roots are an important part of the C balance, because they transfer large amounts of C into the soil. Grasslands, including rangelands, shrublands, pastureland, and cropland sown with pasture and fodder crops, covered approximately 3.5 billion ha in 2000, representing 26 percent of the world land area and 70 percent of the world agricultural area, and containing about 20 percent of the world’s soil carbon stocks. Soils are the largest carbon reservoirs of the terrestrial carbon cycle 1500–1550 Gt of organic soil carbon and soil inorganic C approximate 750 Gt both to 1 m depth. On a global scale, carbon loss from soils is mainly associated with soil degradation, including accelerated erosion and mineralization, and land use change, and has amounted to 78+/- 12 Gt since 1850. The idea of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) was conceived by United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as the main carbon emission reduction mechanism by developing countries. The implementation of improved land management practices to build up carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystems is a proven technology for reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere – offsetting emissions from other sources and drawing down atmospheric CO2. Keywords: Carbon sequestration, Terrestrial carbon, Global warming and Carbon stocks. DOI: 10.7176/JEES/10-8-04 Publication date: August 31 st 2020

The Role of the Indonesian Government in Implementing REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) Program Under Former President Yudhoyono

This paper examines the extent to which the Indonesian government has reduced its greenhouse gases emissions coming from deforestation and forest degradation by using REDD program. Such program is highly regarded as a sophisticated instrument to foster collaboration between developing and developed countries in slashing the rate of deforestation. Indonesia itself has enacted the program as a national policy since 2009 under former President Yudhoyono. In this article, the secondary research method is utilized to gather data as well as adopting a qualitative approach to analyse the topic. This paper has found that Indonesia’s policy to curb the emissions from deforestation and forest degradation by conducting REDD program has not yet been successful, because of weaknesses in the implementation. They include the limitation of President’s power in driving policy; the ineffective of information exchange; the inability to do Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) activities; and contradiction in the decentralization process with regards to REDD implementation. However, some achievements are identified: a slow decline in the rate of deforestation and forest degradation; the continuity partnership between Indonesia and Norway; and the more participation of local stakeholder in supporting REDD program.

Integrating airborne laser scanning data, space-borne radar data and digital aerial imagery to estimate aboveground carbon stock in Hyrcanian forests, Iran

A framework for estimating aboveground forest carbon stock (AFCS) is required for measurement, reporting, and verification (MRV) systems under the United Nations Collaborative Program on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) in Developing Countries. Recently, methods for estimating the spatial distribution of AFCS using remotely sensed datasets and multiple prediction techniques have been found to be useful, particularly given the prohibitive costs of acquiring the necessary sample sizes for sufficiently precise pure field-based estimation of this variable. The objective of the study was to assess and compare the capabilities of airborne laser scanning (ALS) data, L-band radar data and UltraCam images in combination with four commonly used prediction techniques for estimating mean AFCS per unit area: multiple linear regression (MLR) and the nonparametric k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN), support vector regression (SVR), and random forest (RF) algorithms. Our study area was a part of Hyrcanian deciduous forests in two managed and unmanaged stands at Shast Kalateh forest. We used a systematic sample consisting of 308 circular field plots of 0.1 ha located at the intersections of a 150 × 200 m grid with a random starting point and remote sensing-derived metrics as auxiliary data. We used 67% of the sample plots for training purposes and the remaining 33% for validation. Also, we used the model-assisted estimators to statistically rigorously estimate mean AFCS per unit area and its standard error (SE).Among the remotely sensed datasets, considered singly, the ALS data with R2⁎ = 0.34, rRMSE = 47.42% and relative efficiency (RE) = 1.51 produced the greatest accuracy and precision for AFCS estimation. RE can be interpreted as the factor by which the sample size for the pure field-based estimator would have to be increased to obtain the same precision as for the model-assisted estimator using auxiliary data. Among the remotely sensed datasets considered in combination, the ALS and PALSAR dataset with R2⁎ = 0.41, rRMSE = 44.80% and RE = 1.70 produced the greatest prediction accuracy and precision and increased the proportion of variability explained relative to ALS and PALSAR separately by 7% and 36%, respectively. Contrary to our expectation, the combination of PALSAR and UltraCam data decreased the precision of AFCS estimates. All the remotely sensed datasets, singly and in combination, with the most accurate prediction techniques for each combination produced estimates of AFCS that were within the 95% confidence interval for the field-based estimate.

Multi-Temporal and Multi-Frequency SAR Analysis for Forest Land Cover Mapping of the Mai-Ndombe District (Democratic Republic of Congo)

The European Space Agency’s (ESA) “SAR for REDD” project aims to support complementing optical remote sensing capacities in Africa with synthetic aperture radar (SAR) for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD). The aim of this study is to assess and compare Sentinel-1 C-band, ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 L-band and combined C/L-band SAR-based land cover mapping over a large tropical area in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The overall approach is to benefit from multi-temporal observations acquired from 2015 to 2017 to extract statistical parameters and seasonality of backscatters to improve forest land cover (FLC) classification. We investigate whether and to what extent the denser time series of C- band SAR can compensate for the L-band’s deeper vegetation penetration depth and known better FLC mapping performance. The supervised classification differentiates into forest, inundated forest, woody savannah, dry and wet grassland, and river swamps. Several feature combinations of statistical parameters from both, single and multi-frequency observations in a multivariate maximum-likelihood classification are compared. The FLC maps are reclassified into forest, savannah, and grassland (FSG) and validated with a systematic sampling grid of manual interpretations of very-high-resolution optical satellite data. Using the temporal variability of the dual-polarized backscatters, in the form of either wet/dry seasonal averages or using the statistical variance, in addition to the average backscatter, increased the classification accuracies by 4–5 percent points and 1–2 percent points for C- and L-band, respectively. For the FSG validation overall accuracies of 84.4%, 89.1%, and 90.0% were achieved for single frequency C- and L-band, and C/L-band combined, respectively. The resulting forest/non-forest (FNF) maps with accuracies of 90.3%, 92.2%, and 93.3%, respectively, are then compared to the Landsat-based Global Forest Change program’s and JAXA’s ALOS-1/2 based global FNF maps.

Relationship between soil properties and forests carbon: Case of three community forests from Far Western Nepal

The study was carried out in three community-managed forests of Dadeldhura district located in Far West of Nepal in 2015. The objectives of the study were to analyze biomass and soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation and observe how primary soil nutrients and other soil properties affect the biomass and SOC in these forests. Simple random sampling method was used with 0. 62% sampling intensity. Concentric circular sample plot of various sizes were laid out for the necessary data collection. ANOVA, Tukey’s HSD and correlation tests were performed. The carbon density differed significantly (p<0. 05) in the studied CFs. The Tukey’s test showed the BPCF had significantly higher (p<0. 05) carbon density than other CFs. The correlation between biomass density (t/ha) and soil bulk density was very weak and it was not significant. However, biomass density revealed significant (p<0.05) negative correlation with SOC(r = -0.38) and Phosphorous (r = -0.56) content in the soil. Biomass density had no significant correlation with rest of the parameters. Similarly, SOC had significant (p<0.05) positive correlation with all the parameters except with soil bulk density (p<0.05, r= -0. 88). Despite the higher biomass in forests, we found the lesser amount of SOC and primary soil nutrients in the soil. Similarly, acidic soils with higher contents of primary soil nutrients (NPK) had relatively higher SOC whereas higher bulk density decreased the SOC content. Results revealed that community-managed forests seemed a viable source of biomass production and carbon sink to combat the global environmental problem (global warming). These types of forests have conserved relatively the higher biomass (biomass carbon) than normally (business-as-usual )managed forests. This output would be a reference to the policy maker, national and international communities of diverse fields who are engaged in forest carbon services related activities such as reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation(REDD), clean development mechanism (CDM) and forest management in terms of production. Similar studies are recommended in larger geographical areas and different ecological zones to generalize the inference.

Approaches to quantifying carbon emissions from degradation in pan‐tropic forests—Implications for effective REDD monitoring

AbstractSpecial attention is needed to quantify emissions from human‐induced degradation in forest lands because these data are more uncertain and less comprehensive than deforestation data in target countries in the United Nations Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) programme. This study illustrates a Residual Trends (RESTREND) technique with a new baseline that isolates the human influence from natural climatic fluctuations to estimate emissions from forest degradation in countries across the tropics. Based on the recommended Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change methodology and framework, we found a pattern of high carbon density of 183 t C/ha in degraded areas, which was on average 1.5 times that of deforestation areas. Further analysis revealed that the initial value of carbon stock in degraded areas was about 5.45 Pg C during 2002–2012. We found that 17% of countries displayed values more than 100% of those from deforestation under the low degradation emission scenario, whereas 23% of countries displayed values less than 10% under the high degradation emission scenario. Thus, at a national level, with such an approach REDD could be further optimized and REDD targets could be achieved in an effective way.

A global climate-economy model including the REDD option

Compared to conventional abatement measures, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) offers attractive cost savings while tackling the climate change problem. However, there exist challenges associated with the selection of the optimal level of REDD-based abatement given the risks and non-uniform costs of their implementation across countries. This paper develops an integrated assessment model of carbon mitigation, incorporating the REDD option. Using a dynamic optimization framework, it derives the optimal timing and level of REDD participation for key countries with REDD potential based on their opportunity costs and risks. Specifically, Brazil, Indonesia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon and Papua New Guinea, are chosen for inclusion under the REDD-based abatement option. Together, these five countries account for roughly 20 percent of global forest area and 40 percent of current global deforestation. The relevance and contribution of REDD-based abatement is explored under the possibility of non-linear damages resulting from increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases. Results indicate that the REDD programme is an attractive option to consider despite the associated risks of impermanence. Including the REDD option, in fact, also increases conventional abatement efforts because low costs of REDD reduce the overall abatement costs, thereby making it optimal to abate more. Further, use of REDD option helps stabilise the atmospheric carbon stock in the long term. Without REDD, atmospheric carbon concentrations would be higher by 800 billion tonnes in the next 300 years. Whereas, optimal implementation of REDD in just five countries would help avoid the release of about 80 billion tonnes of carbon in the next 50 years.

Regression-Based Integrated Bi-sensor SAR Data Model to Estimate Forest Carbon Stock

The objective of this study is to estimate the forest aboveground carbon (AGC) stock using integrated space-borne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data from COSMO-Skymed (X band) and ALOS PALSAR (L band) with field inventory over a tropical deciduous mixed forest. Carbon acts as a vital constituent in the global decision making policy targeting the impact of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) and climate change. The study proposed an approach to develop regression models for assessing the forest AGC with synergistic use of SAR bi-sensor X and L band sigma nought data. The best-fit integrated aboveground biomass (AGB) model was validated with additional sample points that produced a model accuracy of 78.6%, adjusted R2 = 0.88, RMSE = 16.6 Mg/ha, standard error of estimates of 16.03 and Willmott’s index of agreement of 0.93. Resulting modeled AGB was converted to AGC using conversion factors. L band resulted in higher accuracy of estimates when compared to X band, while the estimation accuracy enhanced on integrating X- and L-band information. Hence, the study presents an approach using integrated SAR bi-sensor X and L bands that enhance the AGB and AGC estimation accuracy, which can contribute to the operational forestry and policy making related to forest conservation, REDD/REDD+ climate change, etc.

Promoting community forestry to reduce deforestation surrounding Gunung Rinjani National Park in Central Lombok, Indonesia

Illegal logging and encroachment are the main drivers of deforestation in Lombok Island. However, recent increases in the frequency of floods and landslides has enhanced local awareness of ecosystem restoration. This study confirms that community participation is an important factor for protecting forests, among others through involvement in ecotourism activities at Gunung Rinjani National Park and participation in agroforestry program in the park’s buffer zone. Since 2010, Community Forestry Program in Central Lombok has been integrated with a scheme of reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD). Although Community Forestry has been successfully implemented in several areas of production forests and protection forests, this scheme is a newly introduced government policy for reforming the management of conservation areas in Indonesia. Through this scheme, local communities have a bundle of rights to manage a parcel of forestland around Gunung Rinjani National Park. In addition to giving access to manage forestland, this scheme also supports the empowerment of local communities to manage forests in more sustainable ways, e.g. through the utilization of non-timber forest products, the cultivation of crops on land under the forest stand, and the rehabilitation of degraded forest lands. This study investigates the trajectories of deforestation, identifies direct and underlying causes of deforestation, and describes the role of Community Forestry to reduce deforestation in Central Lombok.

UAV-Based Digital Terrain Model Generation under Leaf-Off Conditions to Support Teak Plantations Inventories in Tropical Dry Forests. A Case of the Coastal Region of Ecuador.

Remote sensing is revolutionizing the way in which forests studies are conducted, and recent technological advances, such as Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), are providing more efficient methods to assist in REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) monitoring and forest sustainable management. The aim of this work was to develop and test a methodology based on SfM from UAV to generate high quality Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) on teak plantations (Tectona grandis Linn. F.) situated in the Coastal Region of Ecuador (dry tropical forest). UAV overlapping images were collected using a DJI Phantom 4 Advanced© quadcopter during the dry season (leaf-off phenological stage) over 58 teak square plots of 36 m side belonging to three different plantations located in the province of Guayas (Ecuador). A workflow consisting of SfM absolute image alignment based on field surveyed ground control points, very dense point cloud generation, ground points filtering and outlier removal, and DTM interpolation from labeled ground points, was accomplished. A very accurate Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) derived ground points were employed as ground reference to estimate the UAV-SfM DTM vertical error in each reference plot. The plot-level obtained DTMs presented low vertical bias and random error (−3.1 cm and 11.9 cm on average, respectively), showing statistically significant greater error in those reference plots with basal area and estimated vegetation coverage above 15 m2/ha and 60%, respectively. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study aimed at monitoring of teak plantations located in dry tropical forests from UAV images. It provides valuable information that recommends carrying out the UAV image capture during the leaf-off season to obtain UAV-SfM derived DTMs suitable to serve as ground reference in supporting teak plantations inventories.