Melanerpes Erythrocephalus Research Articles

Parental care in a sexually monomorphic Picid, the Red-headed Woodpecker

Parental care in a sexually monomorphic Picid, the Red-headed Woodpecker

Predation of a Cavity Kleptoparasite by an Eastern Rat Snake (Pantherophis alleghaniensis) at an Active Nest Cavity of a Red-Cockaded Woodpecker (Dryobates borealis)

I report a case of predation by Pantherophis alleghaniensis (Eastern Rat Snake) on an adult Melanerpes erythrocephalus (Red-headed Woodpecker) at an active nest cavity of a Dryobates borealis (Red-cockaded Woodpecker [RCW]) in the North Carolina Sandhills. The first RCW nest in this cavity failed during the nestling stage, either from the activities of the snake or the Red-headed Woodpecker. I believe this is the first documentation of a predation event of a kleptoparasite at an active nest cavity of a RCW by a rat snake. The resident RCWs re-nested successfully in the same cavity, illustrating the complex species interactions among rat snakes, cavity kleptoparasites, and RCWs in the Pinus palustris (Longleaf Pine) ecosystem.

Does urbanization influence population trends of cavity-nesting birds and their relationship with European starlings?

European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in North America often achieve high densities in urban regions and compete with other cavity-nesting species for nest sites, including the rapidly declining red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus). However, at a continental scale, European starling populations are unrelated to trends in red-headed woodpeckers. To assess whether urbanization influences population trends of cavity-nesting bird species and the relationship between European starlings and other cavity-nesting birds, we compared population patterns within the highly urbanized region of Cook County, Illinois, USA (which encompasses the city of Chicago) with data from surrounding rural counties. We used data from the Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) and the Christmas Bird Count (CBC) spanning 1970–2017, and i) quantified population trends of 19 cavity-nesting species, and ii) examined the patterns of relationships of each of these species with European starlings. Models fit to population trends over time with a variable for urban/rural location included were selected over models without urban/rural location for 14/17 species in the BBS and 14/15 species in the CBC. Starlings showed population declines in both urban and rural BBS and in urban CBC, while they increased in the rural CBC. Red-headed woodpecker populations declined across every survey set and location. Contrary to predictions, the counts of some species in surveys were significantly positively correlated with European starling population trends, while none were significantly negatively correlated. Our findings suggest that urban and rural locations add information to population trends of cavity-nesting species, and that European starlings have little negative impact on cavity-nesting birds in either rural or urban locations, suggesting that habitat loss and other factors are likely greater impacts on red-headed woodpeckers and other members of the cavity-nesting guild.

Variation in individual autumn migration and winter paths of Great Lakes red-headed woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus)

AbstractMigratory movements of facultative migrants are poorly understood due to their irregular and often unpredictable occurrence. However, tracking such movements is important for understanding population dynamics, informing annual cycle conservation plans, and identifying possible cues of facultative migration. We used pinpoint GPS tags to track autumn and winter movements of migratory red-headed woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) to better understand migration frequency, timing, and routes for birds breeding in managed oak savanna systems in the North American Great Lakes region. Proportions of individuals migrating differed between the two sites, with 72% of the Ohio population migrating, while no individuals in the Minnesota population migrated. Of the Ohio birds that migrated, their movements were highly variable in distance and direction but generally occurred south of the breeding site. Wintering sites ranged from 111 – 218 km from the breeding site. Cover types occupied during migration and wintering were almost exclusively small patches of closed-canopy hardwood forest within agricultural matrices. We documented one-time movements in migratory and non-migratory individuals during the year that have not previously been described in facultative migrants. We found no evidence of a harness or marker effect on proportions of individuals migrating, migration return rates, or annual survival regardless of migration.

Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) winter roost-site selection in a burned forest stand

In temperate regions, winter is characterized by high thermoregulatory demands and low food availability. For woodpeckers, winter survival depends on selecting habitat that provides both suitable roost trees and adequate food. The Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) has experienced precipitous declines across much of its range in the past 50 yr, yet causes of declines remain elusive. Although previous studies have focused primarily on the breeding season, understanding winter roost-site requirements is crucial for the maintenance of Red-headed Woodpecker populations across the full annual cycle. Our study investigated winter roost-site characteristics at 3 spatial scales (roost patch, tree, and cavity) in a 41 ha fire-affected forest stand located in northern Virginia. From February to April of 2016 we tracked Red-headed Woodpeckers to 42 roost-sites during evening surveys. To determine the features driving roost-site selection, we compared vegetation surrounding the roost to random sites within the same forest stand, and occupied roost snags (standing dead trees) were compared to the closest available snag. Cavity height and orientation were also examined. We modelled roost-site selection at both the patch and tree scales using logistic regression and identified important variables and their influence by estimating regression coefficients and their model-averaged parameter weights. Habitat within the patch surrounding roost trees had higher basal area of snags and mast-producing trees compared to random sites. Red-headed Woodpeckers selected roost snags with signs of decay and showed preferences based on snag taxon. Our findings indicate that managing land that produces and retains both snags and mature mast-producing trees will benefit overwintering populations of Red-headed Woodpeckers. This study provides the first detailed analysis of winter roost-site selection in this declining species.

Alexander Wilson’s “Transcript from Living Nature”: Biocentric Anthropomorphism and Animal Protectionist Poetics

“[B]e on the look-out with the gun, and kill every bird that comes in your way” —Alexander Wilson, letter to William Duncan, 8 May 18051 Philadelphia naturalist George Ord compared his friend Alexander Wilson’s immigration to America from Scotland to the release of a caged bird: “He was now free; and exulted in his release, as a bird rejoices which escapes from the confinement of the cage” (xviii). The remark comes the year after Wilson’s 1813 death, in a biographical sketch prefacing the ninth and final volume of the poet-naturalist’s American Ornithology, the first comprehensive study of North American birds by a naturalized US citizen. Ord continues, describing Wilson’s arrival at New Castle in 1794 and subsequent 33-mile trek to Philadelphia, “shouldering his fowling-piece.” It was there in the forests of Delaware, so the story goes, that Wilson saw his first American bird, “a red-headed Woodpecker, which he...

Spanning the habitat gradient: Red-headed woodpecker nest-site selection in three distinct cover types

Understanding species habitat relationships is fundamental to ecology and underpins conservation-based management. Species with broad habitat preferences and wide geographic ranges are capable of fulfilling breeding requirements in different habitat contexts. Habitat selection in these species may vary in a context-specific way, so determining the factors driving habitat selection requires spanning the habitat gradient. Complex landscapes offer a unique opportunity to compare habitat selection across habitat gradients within a single study site. Here, we used a comparative approach to model scale-dependent nest-site selection of the red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) in three distinct cover types at Fort A.P. Hill military installation, Virginia. We found that nest preferences varied among cover types for several patch-scale habitat features. In closed forests, red-headed woodpeckers selected patches with an open canopy characteristic that lacked holly (Ilex opaca) in the understory and contained large pines. In open forests, patches with a high percentage of canopy cover were also avoided. In wetlands, patches with low percent stem cover were preferred. We also found a single variable, medium/large snag density, was highly influential in models for all cover types at the patch scale, indicating the importance of suitable snags for nesting, irrespective of cover type. Models at the tree scale showed similar results for all cover types: red-headed woodpeckers consistently preferred large snags with less bark. Our results demonstrate the value of comparing habitat selection across a habitat gradient. Managers charged with promoting red-headed woodpecker populations would do well to manage for large, partially decayed snags while also considering context-specific habitat needs.

Effects of pine-oak woodland restoration on breeding bird densities in the Ozark-Ouachita Interior Highlands

Restoration is underway to restore lost or degraded remnants of savanna and woodland in the Midwestern United States in the hopes of restoring floristic and wildlife diversity. Information is needed on the effects of pine savanna-woodland restoration on bird abundance to inform management decisions. We conducted point-count surveys for 19 bird species across the gradient of savanna, woodland, and forest in restored and non-restored areas throughout the Ozark-Ouachita Highlands in parts of Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma during the 2013–2015 breeding seasons. We estimated densities of 16 species using distance sampling to account for detection probability, and we determined relationships of bird abundance with management and vegetation variables by evaluating support for a priori models. Densities of early-successional and generalist species were positively related, and interior-forest species negatively related, to restoration. Densities of Brown-headed Nuthatch (Sitta pusilla), Eastern Towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus), Eastern Wood-Pewee (Contopus virens), Pine Warbler (Setophaga pinus), Prairie Warbler (Setophaga discolor), Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus), White-eyed Vireo (Vireo griseus), and Yellow-breasted Chat (Icteria virens) were positively related to prescribed fire activity. Blue-winged Warbler (Vermivora cyanoptera), Kentucky Warbler (Geothlypis formosa), and Yellow-breasted Chat densities were positively related to tree thinning. Many species had higher densities in areas with less canopy cover, tree density, and forest cover. Acadian Flycatcher (Empidonax virescens), Black-and-white Warbler (Mniotilta varia), Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla), Wood Thrush (Hylocichla mustelina), and Worm-eating Warbler (Helmitheros vermivorum) were negatively related to one or more aspects of restoration treatment and generally preferred areas with greater tree density and canopy cover. Summer Tanagers (Piranga rubra) were abundant but density was not strongly related to management or vegetation variables. Restoration provided breeding habitat for disturbance-dependent species and woodland generalists, many of which are species of conservation concern, but canopy cover generally remained too great for species that require more open savanna.

Using a Conservation Biology Blueprint to Protect Seven Species found in the Frontenac Arch Biosphere Reserve, Canada

This project developed a conservation biology blueprint for the Frontenac Arch Biosphere Reserve (FABR) region that can be used towards assessing current conservation practices as well as making future recommendations. The findings of the study can be used towards the Ten Year Biosphere Review for UNESCO, which the FABR submits to keep their biosphere designation. By gathering information in real time, appropriate actions can be taken much more quickly than if the information was only gathered every ten years. This means that different actors can alter their actions to preserve species diversity and success as different factors influence those species through time. For this study, seven species (bald eagle, red-headed woodpecker, common five-lined skink, black rat snake, milksnake, spotted turtle, and great blue heron) were mapped in the area between Frontenac Provincial Park and Charleston Lake Provincial Park. The black rat snake, spotted turtle, and great blue heron were specifically explored in an online survey as well. This study area was chosen on the suggestion of the FABR because it connects Crown Land with the provincial parks, making implementing any new policies easier than land found in the North-South corridor of Ontario which contains a high amount of private development. Using the predicted tree species data, county land usage, eBird data, and endangered species general distribution, this paper hopes to identify where key areas of protection are. By quickly locating hotspots for endangered species, stricter conservation regulations can be implemented to help the recovery of these species.

'Flying Checkerboard' a delight to watch

Have you seen a 'flying checkerboard' recently? That is one of the names for the Redheaded Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus). With its crimson head, snow-white body, and black and white wings, I can see why it is called this, especially when it is flying.

Testing alternative hypotheses for the cause of population declines: The case of the Red-headed Woodpecker

ABSTRACT The Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) has experienced strong population declines during the past 3 decades. Using North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) and Audubon Christmas Bird Count (CBC) data, we investigated 4 hypotheses that may explain this decline, including: (1) interspecific competition with native Red-bellied Woodpeckers (Melanerpes carolinus) and nonnative European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris); (2) predation by Cooper's Hawks (Accipiter cooperii) and Sharp-shinned Hawks (Accipiter striatus); (3) climate change; and (4) changes in forested area within their range. In analyses of both the breeding and overwintering periods, our results indicated a role of increased accipiter populations in driving Red-headed Woodpecker declines through increased predation. We also found evidence for significant effects of warmer winter temperatures and increased forest cover, both directly and indirectly through their effects on enhancing accipiter populations. In contrast, our resu...

Dynamics of Woodpecker – Common Starling interactions: a comparison of Old World and New World species and populations

Abstract Woodpecker species whose cavities are most usurped by Common Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) are widespread and generalists in their use of habitats. These include primarily woodpeckers that are similar in size to or slightly larger than the starling - such as the Great-spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) of Eurasia and the Northern Flicker (Colaptes auratus) and Red-bellied (Melanerpes carolinus) and Red-headed (M. erythrocephalus) Woodpeckers of North America. Usurpation occurs primarily in human-dominated urban, suburban and exurban habitats with pastures, sports fields and other open areas that serve as prime feeding habitats for starlings. Starlings prefer high, more exposed cavities with a minimal entrance diameter relative to their body size. Usurpation success depends on timing - optimally just as a cavity is completed and before egg-laying by the woodpeckers. Starlings likely reduce woodpecker populations in more open, human-dominated habitats. Woodpecker habitat losses and fragmentation are more serious problems that enhance habitat quality for starlings and reduce habitat quality for most woodpeckers. The only woodpeckers that might become in danger of extinction as a primary result of starling cavity usurpation are likely island species with small populations. Conservation of rare species limited to islands, such as Fernandina’s Flicker (Colaptes fernandinae) of Cuba, may depend on our ability to prevent the establishment of the Common Starling or other aggressive cavity competitors on their island. Understanding and interpreting impacts of woodpecker cavity usurpation must include consideration of past woodpecker and Common Starling population fluctuations, breadth of habitats used by woodpecker species, and habitat limitations of Common Starlings. Conservation efforts for woodpeckers and other primary and secondary cavity-nesting species must focus on changes in tree, forest and ecosystem management to encourage maintenance of dead wood, large contiguous tracts that include diverse tree species and old growth, and forested linkages among such areas.

Low Fecundity of Red-Headed Woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) at the Northern Edge of the Range

ABSTRACT The Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) is a threatened bird species undergoing continued population declines across most of its range. Despite the conservation concern, there are few published studies on the species’ fecundity. We examined the nesting phenology, clutch size, and fledging success of Red-headed Woodpecker nests in southern Ontario and northern New York, where population declines are especially pronounced. We calculated the fecundity of the Red-headed Woodpecker populations from fledgling numbers and nest survival estimates. We found that nest phenology and clutch sizes were similar to those reported in other studies for the species. Red-headed Woodpecker nests monitored using video inspection had an unusually low fledging success (39%), and an average fecundity of 0.43 female fledglings per female per year. The fledgling success and fecundity for the monitored Red-headed Woodpecker population was lower than that reported by other published studies on Melanerpes spp....

Nest selection by red-headed woodpeckers across three spatial scales in an urban environment

Forest habitat is important for a variety of woodpecker species, and is under pressure from urbanization. Red-headed Woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus; RHWO) were once abundant across Eastern North America, and their populations have been declining since the 1960s. Their distribution encompasses urban centers, and since urban habitats differ from natural forest areas, our goal was to understand RHWO nest-site selection in an urban context. We addressed two main questions 1) what are the characteristics of RHWO nest selection across multiple spatial scales and 2) how do RHWO nest tree characteristics in city parks compare to those in forest preserves? This work was done in Cook County, IL, which includes Chicago, the third-largest city in the USA by population. We examined 34 RHWO nest trees used between 2010 and 2013, their surrounding habitat, and the landscape within a 1 km radius. Used trees and habitats were compared to paired unused trees and habitats, and landscape-scale characteristics were compared to random locations. Advanced decay of the nest tree, low canopy cover and increased presence of fungus on trees in the surrounding habitat were the best predictors of RHWO nesting in the area. Nests were most commonly found in forested areas outside of dense urban areas. However, we did not detect significant differences in the characteristics of the nest trees located in forest preserves and city parks. Our findings are consistent with nest selection studies in rural and natural areas, suggesting that forest habitats in metropolitan landscapes can support RHWO nesting.

Scale-dependent and multi-metric nest habitat thresholds for Red-headed Woodpeckers at the northern periphery of their range

ABSTRACT The relation between species occurrence and the structure or composition of habitat can be complex and often varies in a species-specific manner. Sometimes, species–habitat relations are defined by thresholds, or abrupt nonlinear responses to a habitat gradient. Threshold responses are expected when certain habitat features are required for species occurrence. For example, primary cavity-nesting woodpeckers often typify the threshold concept because in the absence of appropriate substrates (decadent wood) large enough for nest cavities, woodpeckers will not occur. In such cases, identifying thresholds is important to ensure that management activities meet minimal (or maximal) habitat requirements of target species. The Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) is a species of national conservation concern, and loss of suitable nesting habitat has been suggested as a primary factor in its population declines. Threshold responses may partly explain why this species has gone locally extinct...

Interspecific competition and nest survival of the threatened Red-headed Woodpecker

The cavity-nesting Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) is a once common, but now threatened, species across most of its range. Although several drivers for the species’ decline have been suggested, few have been quantitatively tested and still little is known of the Red-headed Woodpecker’s breeding ecology. From 2010 to 2011, we monitored 60 Red-headed Woodpecker nests across a variety of habitats in southern Ontario to estimate the species’ nest survival near the northern edge of their range where populations are rapidly declining. We investigated the relevance of a suite of meteorological, biotic, temporal, and habitat-based drivers on woodpecker nesting success. The frequency of European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) sightings near active woodpecker nest sites was the strongest factor influencing Red-headed Woodpecker nest survival. Logistic-exposure nest success assuming constant survival (68 %) dropped significantly (to 13 %) when the frequency of Starling sightings was considered. More than a third of nest failures were suspected to be the result of aggressive cavity takeovers by Starlings, and nests with Starlings present were almost four times more likely to fail than nests without. Red-headed Woodpecker nest survival early in the breeding season appeared depressed, perhaps as a result of interference competition with Starlings. Nesting success increased with the availability of snags and dead branches, which may increase foraging opportunities and parental attentiveness at the nest, leading to more effective nest defense. This research is contrary to previous reports that Starlings do not negatively affect North American primary cavity nesters, and demonstrates the importance of considering multiple ecological, temporal, and spatial factors when determining threats for species-at-risk.

Survival of Red-headed Woodpeckers' (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) nests in northern New York

Populations of Red-headed Woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) have declined throughout much of their range. Conservation management to arrest declines or increase populations is difficult, because many aspects of the species' demography remain poorly understood. To address this knowledge gap, we monitored Red-headed Woodpeckers' nests on Fort Drum Military Installation, in northern New York and modeled daily nest survival rate as a function of temporal and habitat-specific covariates. Red-headed Woodpeckers had low overall nest survival rates (nest survival = 32%), and predation was the leading cause (82%) of nest failure. Cavity concealment had the greatest influence on daily nest survival rate, whereby nests with greater vegetative structure surrounding (within 1 m2 of) the nest cavity had higher survival rates, likely because of reduced nest predation. Our estimates of Red-headed Woodpeckers' nest survival were lower relative to other portions of their range and suggest that, at local scales, low reproductive rates near the periphery of the species' distribution may limit population growth.

Can snag creation benefit a primary cavity nester: Response to an experimental pulse in snag abundance

Thresholds in response by cavity-nesting bird populations to variations in the snag resource are poorly understood. In addition, limited information exists on the value of artificially created snags for cavity-nesting birds. Therefore, uncertainty exists in whether artificially created snags can yield a positive population response among snag-dependent birds. We used an experimental approach to assess the abundance and territory dynamics of a primary cavity nester, the red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus), in response to three snag density treatments over an 8-year period following treatment installation in 2001. Treatments included snag removal, an unmanipulated control, and a snag pulse (snags experimentally created at 14 times control density). During the first two years post-treatment, abundance of red-headed woodpeckers did not differ among treatments. In 2004, woodpecker abundance in snag pulse plots surpassed that of other treatments and continued to increase until it peaked in 2007 (at nearly 6 times than on control plots), after which it declined but remained greater than on control plots through 2009. Increased woodpecker abundance in high snag density areas was facilitated primarily by a decrease in home range size. Because the red-headed woodpecker is negatively affected by very low snag densities, yet is capable of exploiting pulses in the snag resource by dramatically increasing its abundance, we conclude that snag density regulates populations of this primary cavity nesting species and that snag creation can be an important tool in its conservation.

Attempted conspecific cavity usurpation by Red-headed Woodpeckers (<em>Melanerpes erythrocephalus</em>)

When breeding resources are scarce, intense competition for nest sites among cavity-nesting birds can result in agonistic encounters and cavity usurpation. Red-headed Woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) are known to usurp nest cavities from interspecific competitors, but the incidence of conspecific cavity usurpation remains unreported. We describe an attempted conspecific nest usurpation and depredation by a Red-headed Woodpecker in mixed-oak (Quercus) woodlands in northern New York State.

Nest Success and Nest site Selection of Red-headed Woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) in East-central Illinois

We examined nest success and nest site selection of red-headed woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) in east-central Illinois. Overall nest success, estimated from a constant survival logistic-exposure model, was 56%. Cavities at greater height had greater success and daily survival rates increased with nest age. We also compared habitat variables at nest and random sites. Red-headed woodpeckers nested more frequently in snags than expected and habitat surrounding nest cavity trees had more cavities than habitat surrounding random trees, which were generally taller than nest cavity trees. Thus, the immediate preservation or creation of large diameter snags and snags high above the ground will likely improve nesting habitat and nest success of red-headed woodpeckers.