Red Deer Management Research Articles

Comparative Analysis of Microsatellite and SNP Markers for Genetic Management of Red Deer.

The analysis of population genetic structure and individual multilocus heterozygosity are crucial for wildlife management and conservation. Microsatellite markers have traditionally been used to assess these genetic parameters. However, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are becoming increasingly popular. Our goal here was to determine to what extent SNPs can provide better insights than microsatellites into the overall genetic status and population genetic processes in the species. To this end, we genotyped 210 red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the Spanish wild population with both 11 microsatellites and 31,712 SNPs. We compared parameters related to population genetic structure and individual multilocus heterozygosity obtained with both types of markers. Our results showed correlations between parameters measured using both microsatellites and SNPs, particularly those related to the level of genetic diversity and genetic differentiation. However, we found notably lower precision of microsatellites in measuring the distribution of genetic diversity among individuals. We conclude that microsatellites can be used to monitor the overall genetic status and detect broad patterns in red deer populations. Nevertheless, the greater precision of SNPs in inferring genetic structure and multilocus heterozygosity leads us to encourage scientists and wildlife managers to prioritize their use whenever possible.

Obtaining Sustainable Population Structures for the Management of Red Deer

Cervus elaphus populations are spreading and growing in many parts of Europe. This growth can have detrimental effects on biodiversity and ecosystem function. Successful strategies to manage large herbivores require reliable information on density and population trends. This paper presents a methodology to achieve a sustainable distribution of red deer by age and sex classes over time. Instead of traditional algebraic methods, the method consists of a simple iterative process that uses convergence to obtain the dominant eigenvalue and eigenvector of the biological matrix from an initial population. This eigenvalue represents the annual growth rate of the population, and the eigenvector represents the ideal age and sex class distribution of the population. The method has been applied to a fenced preserve in the province of Toledo, Spain. An annual population growth rate of 1.63 (dominant eigenvalue of the biological matrix) was obtained from an initial population and the biological matrix of the deer on the preserve. The convergence of this rate occurred in year 14, but the carrying capacity allows for a population close to the population in year 17 according to the prediction, which is therefore considered to be the year when the ideal population distribution is achieved. This methodology allows managers to numerically justify how to control population growth to preserve biodiversity and sustainability.

The Effect of Landscape Environmental Factors on Gene Flow of Red Deer (Cervus canadensis xanthopygus) in the Southern of the Greater Khingan Mountains, China.

Red deer (Cervus canadensis xanthopygus) living in the north of China are restricted and threatened due to human activities and the changes in the natural environment, which influence the dispersal and effective gene flow between different groups of red deer. Effective gene flow plays an important role in maintaining genetic diversity and structure and ensuring population health. In order to evaluate the genetic diversity level and understand the gene flow between different red deer groups, 231 fresh fecal samples were collected from the southern part of the Greater Khingan Mountains, China. A microsatellite marker was used for genetic analysis. The results showed that the genetic diversity of red deer was intermediate in this region. Significant genetic differentiation among different groups was found in the main distribution area (p < 0.01) using F-statistics and the program STRUCTURE. Different degrees of gene flow existed in red deer groups, and the roads (importance = 40.9), elevation (importance = 38.6), and settlements (importance = 14.1) exerted main effects on gene flow between red deer groups. Human-made factors should be noticed and strictly supervised in this region to avoid excessive disturbance to the normal movement of the red deer. Further conservation and management of red deer should reduce the intensity of vehicular traffic in the concentrated distribution areas of red deer, especially during the heat season. This research helps us better understand the genetic level and health status of red deer in the southern part of the Greater Khingan Mountains and provides theoretical references for protecting and restoring the red deer populations in China.

Spatial variation in red deer density in a transboundary forest ecosystem

Forests in Europe are exposed to increasingly frequent and severe disturbances. The resulting changes in the structure and composition of forests can have profound consequences for the wildlife inhabiting them. Moreover, wildlife populations in Europe are often subjected to differential management regimes as they regularly extend across multiple national and administrative borders. The red deer Cervus elaphus population in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem, straddling the Czech-German border, has experienced forest disturbances, primarily caused by windfalls and bark beetle Ips typographus outbreaks during the past decades. To adapt local management strategies to the changing environmental conditions and to coordinate them across the international border, reliable estimates of red deer density and abundance are highly sought-after by policymakers, wildlife managers, and stakeholders. Covering a 1081-km2 study area, we conducted a transnational non-invasive DNA sampling study in 2018 that yielded 1578 genotyped DNA samples from 1120 individual red deer. Using spatial capture-recapture models, we estimated total and jurisdiction-specific abundance of red deer throughout the ecosystem and quantified the role of forest disturbance and differential management strategies in shaping spatial heterogeneity in red deer density. We hypothesised that (a) forest disturbances provide favourable habitat conditions (e.g., forage and cover), and (b) contrasting red deer management regimes in different jurisdictions create a differential risk landscape, ultimately shaping density distributions. Overall, we estimated that 2851 red deer (95% Credible Interval = 2609–3119) resided in the study area during the sampling period, with a relatively even overall sex ratio (1406 females, 95% CI = 1229–1612 and 1445 males, 95% CI = 1288–1626). The average red deer density was higher in Czechia (3.5 km−2, 95% CI = 1.2–12.3) compared to Germany (2 km−2, 95% CI = 0.2–11). The effect of forest disturbances on red deer density was context-dependent. Forest disturbances had a positive effect on red deer density at higher elevations and a negative effect at lower elevations, which could be explained by partial migration and its drivers in this population. Density of red deer was generally higher in management units where hunting is prohibited. In addition, we found that sex ratios differed between administrative units and were more balanced in the non-intervention zones. Our results show that the effect of forest disturbances on wild ungulates is modulated by additional factors, such as elevation and ungulate management practices. Overall density patterns and sex ratios suggested strong gradients in density between administrative units. With climate change increasing the severity and frequency of forest disturbances, population-level monitoring and management are becoming increasingly important, especially for wide-ranging species as both wildlife and global change transcend administrative boundaries.

Life, Death and Teeth of Late Neolithic Sheep and Red Deer Excavated at Ness of Brodgar, Orkney Islands (UK)

ABSTRACT The faunal remains from the late Neolithic site of Ness of Brodgar on the Orkney Islands (UK) provide a unique opportunity to investigate past adaptations of animal husbandry strategies to the Northern island environment, as well as the potential management of red deer. In this study, sheep and red deer mandibles and loose teeth (dP4 & M3) from the Ness of Brodgar were studied to construct age-at-death profiles, and analysed for δ13C, δ15N and δ18O. The mortality profile showed that around half of the analysed sheep were slaughtered when they reached maturity (i.e. after 2–4 years of life), consistent with a husbandry regime targeted at meat production. The stable isotope evidence indicates seaweed consumption in winter by several sheep (domesticates), but not by red deer (wild, possibly managed fauna). This dietary difference may have resulted from anthropogenically mediated influences, e.g. restriction of red deer habitats to upland areas. The varying extent of seaweed consumption between individual sheep and between Neolithic Orkney sites suggests differences in sheep husbandry practices across Orkney, indicating that the adaptation to consume seaweed was not ubiquitous on Orkney in the Neolithic, and did not follow a linear development.

Red Deer in Lithuania: History, Status and Management

The history, current population status and (un)sustainable management of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Lithuania are reviewed on the basis of 57 publications and, additionally, analysis of data on numbers and hunting bag. After the extinction of the species at the beginning of the 19th century, red deer were reintroduced into the northern part of the country during World War I. Population re-establishment was further fueled after WWII by immigration from neighboring countries and local translocations. After the introduction of the Law on Hunting in 2002, which enabled hunting organizations to rent hunting grounds for longer than 10 years, local wildlife management strategies were targeted at increasing the number of animals. However, a scientifically-based target population size for C. elaphus, agreed by all major stakeholders, has still not been defined. In the last 20 years, population growth has been exponential, deer numbers in Lithuania being estimated as 68,816 individuals in 2021. An increase in the size of the hunting bag is necessary for the sustainable management of the species at the national scale and to avoid risks of over-population as observed elsewhere in Europe.

The relationship of stakeholders’ social identities and wildlife value orientations with attitudes toward red deer management

ABSTRACT It has been recommended that wildlife management should be tailored to either wildlife value orientations (WVOs) or social identities (SIs) because both can influence stakeholders’ attitudes. However, a comparison of associations of WVOs and SIs with attitudes of stakeholders is lacking in the literature. We examined WVOs and attitudes toward red deer management among 834 individuals, encompassing foresters, hunting tenants, and conservationists (presumed to have strong SIs), as well as citizens, councilors, and forest owners (presumed to have weak SIs). Foresters’ and hunting tenants’ attitudes did not differ, despite the presence of different WVOs among each group, whereas conservationists’ attitudes partly and citizens,’ councilors’ and forest owners’ attitudes were strongly associated with different WVOs. Those with strong SIs should be addressed in terms of self-concepts and group processes. We recommend qualitative research on the SIs of stakeholders and quantitative research on the linkages of SIs and other social-psychological concepts.

Long term surveillance reveals nematode Elaphostrongylus cervi as a practical indicator of red deer management

Measures of performance in wild ungulates must consider density dependent and stochastic factors such as parasitic rates (as natural enemies in intimae relation with hosts) along with the impact of population management. In order to standardize parasite counts to be useful ecological indicators, it is essential to test host and parasite responses to the abovementioned. In the Iberian Peninsula, the parasitic nematode Elaphostrongylus cervi and its host the red deer (Cervus elaphus) provide an excellent practical scenario to illustrate how parasitic rates should be interpreted under different management contexts. Our study focuses on two distinct management scenarios, one deer population (LM) with supplemental feeding and one population (QM) with almost no human intervention, aside from hunting. We aim to assess how management (supplemental feeding) modulates the relationships of density dependent, stochastic and individual factors, and E. cervi faecal larvae counts in the red deer, so as with other physiological traits (body condition and spleen weight - as a proxy to immunological status). Overall, we have shown the decisive role that density and precipitation can have in a Mediterranean environment, with different trends in the two studied areas (e.g. negative correlation between E. cervi and red deer density in supplemented population, in opposition to un-supplemented). The crucial role that precipitation combined with density can have on deer dynamics, along with the artificial feeding as buffer of some traits, reinforces the need for an adaptive management, and the demand to manage each population considering the surrounding environment. Management strategies selected in each site can establish populations dynamics and health and should be closely monitored in a long-term context, as it occurs in our study.

Deciphering Anthropogenic Effects on the Genetic Background of the Red Deer in the Iberian Peninsula

Anthropogenic hybridization is one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity. It incites human-mediated gene flow between non-native/exotic and native taxa, which can have irreversible effects on native species or locally adapted populations, eventually leading to extinction. The red deer, Cervus elaphus, is a game species that, due to its extraordinary economic value, has been introduced in several regions throughout Europe. However, the consequences of those introductions on native populations, namely on their genetic background, have been poorly addressed. This study is focused on the Iberian Peninsula and aims to: i) assess the extent of anthropogenic hybridization/introgression of introduced red deer into the native Iberian populations; ii) evaluate the impact of red deer management regimes on the observed hybridization/introgression patterns; and iii) assess how hybridization/introgression influence the current genetic diversity of native Iberian populations. A set of 11 microsatellites and a 329 bases pair fragment of the mitochondrial D-loop gene were used to estimate nuclear admixture and mitochondrial introgression in 1132 individuals sampled across 46 red deer populations throughout Iberia. A Bayesian approach implemented in the STRUCTURE program was employed to investigate the proportion of admixture between native populations and non-native red deer. Results showed that 17% of individuals presented signs of non-native recent ancestors and 10.1% had non-native mitochondrial haplotypes, reaching an overall hybridization/introgression rate of 23%. Non-native or hybrid individuals were found throughout 40 Iberian red deer populations, and the percentages per population varied between 3.3% and 75.0%, independently of the management regime. Mitochondrial introgression was observed across 15 Iberian red deer populations, being more frequent in free-ranging individuals (16.2%) than in fenced populations (9.2%) but was completely absent from public-owned populations. Nuclear genetic diversity correlated positively with the proportion of hybrid individuals in public-owned populations. The genetic footprint of historical and current human-mediated translocations of non-native red deer into the Iberian Peninsula is evidenced in this study, highlighting the need to implement effective measures to avoid such practices both in Portugal and Spain, in order to preserve the endogenous genetic patrimony of the Iberian red deer populations.

Protection by culling: the crux of red deer management in National Parks

Managing large ungulates in the territory of national parks requires comprehensive knowledge of many factors (population parameters, the distribution of animals and the number of their habitats, their feeding grounds, the intensity and direction of their migration), and skill in responding to the effects of negative chance events. A large number of the factors are by nature stochastic; thus, from a programming perspective, the issue of managing ungulate populations is difficult to formulate as an algorithm. This paper presents a model built using artificial neural networks (ANN). The results obtained with this model show that it is possible to maintain the population in a park without the necessity for culling within its boundaries. The study also demonstrated that culling specifically of hinds in these areas should be increased. The research presents alternative culling strategies for red deer populations in protected areas.

Spatial and temporal habitat use and selection by red deer: The use of direct and indirect methods

Given the importance of red deer Cervus elaphus for hunting and conservation purposes, understanding the interactions between this species and its habitats in the Mediterranean region is a crucial step for the sustainable management of this species. Aiming to compare pellet group counts and direct observations methods to study the habitat use and selection by red deer, the results obtained by both methods were compared, and their advantages and disadvantages were discussed. To understand the temporal patterns of habitat use and selection, the survey was conducted at three different seasons, birth period, rut season and winter. The habitat use and selection were studied in relation to land cover, watercourse, roads, ecotone zones and other topographic features (altitude, slope and aspect), using generalized linear models and selection ratios. The similarity of the results provided by pellet group counts and direct observations indicate that both methods may constitute useful tools to study the habitat use and selection by red deer. Globally, red deer seemed to select habitats that provide simultaneously food and some cover, as shown by its preference for shrublands, independently of the sampling season. The positive selection of ecotone zones embodies the need for open spaces. Males and females showed a similar use of shrubland, but selected patches with different characteristics therein. The spatial and temporal patterns exhibited by our results suggest that red deer balance their habitat requirements in respect to each phase of their reproductive cycle. Pellet group counts and direct observations seem to be useful methods to analyze habitat use and selection, and may provide helpful knowledge to the management and conservation of red deer.

Eurasian lynx hunting red deer: is there an influence of a winter enclosure system?

As in several Central European areas, in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem (Germany and the Czech Republic), fenced feeding enclosures are used for the winter management of red deer (Cervus elaphus), which is an important component of the Eurasian lynx’s (Lynx lynx) winter diet. Using GPS telemetry data, we tested whether (1) lynx hunted red deer mainly selecting for high prey densities and environmental characteristics like a good level of habitat heterogeneity, independently of the enclosures’ presence; (2) enclosures attracted lynx and (3) positively influenced their predation on red deer, being predictable and abundant prey sources throughout the winter; or (4) extremely high deer densities inside the enclosures rather negatively influenced lynx predation on this species. We first compared lynx space usage and predation on red deer inside and outside the enclosures. Then, we investigated the effects of the environment, prey densities and the enclosure distance for the area outside of enclosures. Prey densities positively influenced lynx space usage, whilst the probability of predation on red deer was highest at medium to low red deer densities. Habitat heterogeneity and terrain ruggedness influenced both lynx space usage and probability of predation on red deer. Regarding the effect of enclosures, the ratio “area used during night vs. daytime” was larger by a factor of 2 inside compared to outside enclosures, and the probability of predation on red deer was three times higher inside rather than outside of enclosures; however, these differences were not statistically significant, suggesting that the influence of the enclosures is not very pronounced.

The impact of red deer management on liverworts associated with the mixed hepatic mat community and other terrestrial cryptogams

Background: Exclosure is often regarded as the most effective means of encouraging woodland regeneration in the presence of high deer densities. This has potential implications for terrestrial cryptogam diversity at a time when the Scottish Government is encouraging an increase in woodland cover. The hepatic mat assemblage at Coire Dhorrcail, Knoydart, is unique to the Scottish mainland in that it occurs from sea-shore to mountain summit throughout the full range of vegetation. No previous study has examined the response of this rare liverwort community to the absence of red deer.Aims: To compare the species richness, diversity, dominance and abundance of bryophytes and lichens either side of the twenty-year-old deer exclosure at Knoydart.Methods: Percentage cover of cryptogam species has been estimated from quadrats within paired sample plots at different altitudes on either side of the exclosure. Sampling was randomised at each stage. Simple linear models were used to analyse the data.Results: Succession within the exclosure has created conditions suitable for bulkier species of moss to attain local dominance, causing significant reduction of Herbertus hutchinsiae cover, cryptogam species richness and diversity.Conclusions: What is good for tree regeneration may be bad for terrestrial cryptogams. Careful consideration of existing biodiversity is necessary before exclosing large areas for woodland regeneration.

The impact of red deer management on cryptogam ecology in vegetation typical of north west Scotland

Background: An understanding of the effects of red deer on bryophyte and lichen communities in wet heath and bog vegetation typical of northwest Scotland is important so that land managers can make more informed decisions concerning deer numbers.Aims: To compare various measures of cryptogam species diversity inside and outside a number of established deer exclosures at the Letterewe and Little Gruinard estates, Wester Ross, Scotland.Methods: Species cover data were recorded from 192 2 m × 2 m quadrats allocated to 32 blocks and assigned to nine exclosures of different ages with due attention to randomisation. Linear mixed effects models were fitted to the data.Results: In the short to medium term there was no significant difference in cryptogam dominance, diversity and species richness on either side of the exclosures. However, Cladonia lichens responded to a lack of trampling and were significantly more abundant inside exclosures. Greater Calluna vulgaris cover in the absence of a large herbivore is likely to have created conditions that promote the growth of Sphagnum capillifolium ssp. rubellum and this in turn increased the habitat available for several liverworts.Conclusions: The upper limit of deer numbers deemed appropriate for reducing loss of Calluna cover in wet heath vegetation is set too high to prevent impact on important cryptogam communities.

Habitat monitoring in the wider countryside: A case study on the pursuit of innovation in red deer management

Policy frameworks for protected areas, such as the EU habitats directive, ensure that environmental monitoring takes place to assess the condition of these sites. However, this monitoring rarely extends to the wider countryside, and there is no obligation for private landowners to detect trends in habitat condition. Using the diffusion of innovations model as an analytical framework we conducted a series of semi-structured interviews to consider the uptake of habitat impact assessment methods throughout a community involved in private land use pursuits in Scotland. It was found that although the community as a whole recognises the benefits of habitat impact assessments there are a number of barriers to their uptake, including the complexity of data gathering and interpretation, and uncertainty around who should be responsible for the conduct of assessments. Analysing the uptake of an innovation at an early stage, rather than retrospectively as is commonly done, highlights the potential for non-adoption and could therefore inform the reinvention of the innovation. In this instance reinvention could lead to more appropriate monitoring methods, which, if taken up, could reduce the need for legislative intervention in situations where both public and private interests need to be considered.

The effect of agricultural land use practice on habitat selection of red deer

The population of red deer (Cervus elaphus) has increased substantially in many western European countries during recent decades. Simultaneously, agricultural practices have undergone major changes. Observations suggest that meadows and pastures are important sources of nutrients for deer, but there are few studies quantifying the selection of agricultural land by deer in general. Here, we study red deer selection of various types of agricultural land and the history of land use (times of fertilisation and since renewal) in Norway. We used data from 14 female and 12 male red deer with GPS collars during the years 2007–2010. Our study design was to compare pairs of agricultural fields that had received “low” and “high” use by a given individual red deer and data were analysed by using case–control logistic regression. Our results showed that both sexes selected meadows over other types of agricultural land. Females selected intensively fertilised meadows and meadows of intermediate age, while male selection did not depend on meadow age (time since renewal) or fertilisation. The smaller females thus selected meadows of high quality, while the larger males continued to use old meadows of lower quality but rich in biomass. Our analysis suggests that a decreasing supply of meadows in the future due to lower production of livestock fodder may also affect management of red deer, and that a future change in the intensity of agricultural practices may affect sexes of wild large herbivores differently.

Getting the biggest birch for the bang: restoring and expanding upland birchwoods in the Scottish Highlands by managing red deer

High deer populations threaten the conservation value of woodlands and grasslands, but predicting the success of deer culling, in terms of allowing vegetation to recover, is difficult. Numerical simulation modeling is one approach to gain insight into the outcomes of management scenarios. We develop a spatially explicit model to predict the responses of Betula spp. to red deer (Cervus elaphus) and land management in the Scottish Highlands. Our model integrates a Bayesian stochastic stage-based matrix model within the framework of a widely used individual-based forest simulation model, using data collected along spatial and temporal gradients in deer browsing. By initializing our model with the historical spatial locations of trees, we find that densities of juvenile trees (<3 m tall) predicted after 9–13 years closely match counts observed in the field. This is among the first tests of the accuracy of a dynamical simulation model for predicting the responses of tree regeneration to herbivores. We then test the relative importance of deer browsing, ground cover vegetation, and seed availability in facilitating landscape-level birch regeneration using simulations in which we varied these three variables. We find that deer primarily control transitions of birch to taller (>3 m) height tiers over 30 years, but regeneration also requires suitable ground cover for seedling establishment. Densities of adult seed sources did not influence regeneration, nor did an active management scenario where we altered the spatial configuration of adults by creating “woodland islets”. Our results show that managers interested in maximizing tree regeneration cannot simply reduce deer densities but must also improve ground cover for seedling establishment, and the model we develop now enables managers to quantify explicitly how much both these factors need to be altered. More broadly, our findings emphasize the need for land managers to consider the impacts of large herbivores rather than their densities.

Seasonal habitat selection of the red deer (Cervus elaphus alxaicus) in the Helan Mountains, China

We studied the seasonal habitat selection of the red deer, Cervus elaphus alxaicus Bobrinskii & Flerov, 1935, in the Helan Mountains, China, from December 2007 to December 2008. Habitat selection varied widely by season. Seasonal movements between high and low elevations were attributed to changes in forage availability, alpine topography, the arid climate of the Helan Mountains, and potential competition with blue sheep, Pseudois nayaur (Hodgson, 1833). The use of vegetation types varied seasonally according to food availability and ambient temperature. Red deer used montane coniferous forest and alpine shrub and meadow zones distributed above 2,000 m and 3,000 m in summer, alpine shrub and meadows above 3,000 m in autumn, being restricted to lower elevation habitats in spring and winter. The winter habitat of C. elaphus alxaicus was dominated by Ulmus glaucescens Franch. and Juglans regia Linnaeus, deciduous trees, and differed from the habitats selected by other subspecies of red deer. Cervus elaphus alxaicus preferred habitats with abundant vegetation coverage to open habitats in winter, but the reverse pattern was observed in summer and autumn. Red deer preferred gentle slopes (<10°) but the use of slope gradient categories varied seasonally. Red deer avoidance of human disturbance in the Helan Mountains varied significantly by season. Information on red deer habitat selection can help understand the factors affecting seasonal movements and also support decision making in the management and conservation of red deer and their habitats.

Balancing income and cost in red deer management

This paper presents a bioeconomic analysis of a red deer population within a Norwegian institutional context. This population is managed by a well-defined manager, typically consisting of many landowners operating in a cooperative manner, with the goal of maximizing the present-value hunting related income while taking browsing and grazing damages into account. The red deer population is structured in five categories of animals (calves, female and male yearlings, adult females and adult males). It is shown that differences in the per-animal meat values and survival rates (‘biological discounted’ values) are instrumental in determining the optimal harvest composition. Fertility plays no direct role. It is argued that this is a general result working in stage-structured models with harvest values. In the numerical illustration it is shown that the optimal harvest pattern stays quite stable under various parameter changes. It is revealed which parameters and harvest restrictions that is most important. We also show that the current harvest pattern involves too much yearling harvest compared with the economically efficient level.

How Attitudes are Shaped: Controversies Surrounding Red Deer Management in a National Park

Attitude surveys among affected groups are established tools for integrating actors into decision-making concerning wildlife management. However, the complexity of attitudes and the fact that general attitudes toward wildlife may differ from those toward specific management measures reveal the risk of misinterpreting the data obtained. This article explores these problems based on a quantitative survey of hunters and landowners living close to the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany. The aim of the study was to identify factors that affected peoples' attitudes toward red deer management. Two variables predominantly influenced interviewees' answers: First, their land use interests, and second, their regional affiliation, the latter resulting in differences in the relationship between interviewees and park administration. We conclude that traditional concepts of grouping people based on land use interests may neglect case-specific, actual group structures. Attitudes toward wildlife-related issues might be superimposed by attitudes toward issues other than those originally addressed.