Packaging Waste Recycling Research Articles

The Factors Influencing the Recycling of Plastic and Composite Packaging Waste

The Factors Influencing the Recycling of Plastic and Composite Packaging Waste

Recycling packaging waste from residual waste reduces greenhouse gas emissions

Recycling packaging waste from residual waste can help alleviate resource pressure. However, its environmental and economic benefits remain uncertain, which hinders the widespread application of packaging waste recycling. This study assessed the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, environmental impacts, and external costs of a government-recommended technology for recycling packaging waste by applying Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and ChintaxRCP model. The results showed that packaging waste recycling reduced GHG emissions by an average of 348.1 kg CO2-eq/t residual waste, and external costs by 376.7 €/t residual waste, due to the decrease in incineration. If all packaging waste in residual waste is recycled, over 60% of the total GHG emissions and about 80% of the external costs of residual waste management can be avoided. Moreover, sensitivity analysis indicated that the content of paper and plastic had a significant impact on the environmental impacts of residual waste management. This study demonstrates that recycling packaging waste instead of incineration can bring environmental and economic benefits in the long run. The study provides quantitative evidence to support policies for waste management and increases confidence in the utilization of low-value recyclables for the government.

Effects of perceived situational factors on plastic packaging waste recycling behavior through environmental attitude

AbstractThis study explores the effects of perceived situational factors (cost, time, and effort) related to plastic packaging waste recycling behavior. It also examines the mediating role of environmental attitudes in this relationship. An online questionnaire-based survey administered to a pan-Canadian sample of 1000 respondents reveals that from an aggregate perspective, perceived situational factors positively and directly impact environmental attitudes and plastic packaging waste recycling. Because environmental attitude is also positively related to plastic recycling, environmental attitudes partially mediate the link between perceived situational factors and plastic recycling. From a piecemeal perspective, the perception of a higher degree of inexpensiveness, fastness, and effortlessness directly affects environmental attitudes and plastic packaging waste recycling. Hence, environmental attitude partially mediates the effect of consumers' perceived situational factors and explains their impact on plastic packaging waste recycling.

Discussion on plastic waste management hierarchy

Although recycling is one of the main solutions proposed in the waste hierarchy established by the Waste Framework Directive, the effective recycling of plastic packaging waste in Italy is still insufficient. Through a review of European Union and Italian legislation, recycling strategies and technological innovations, such as the use of bioplastics and chemical recycling, this work aims to help fill possible knowledge gaps and guide decisions in both, the public sector and the private sector, in the development of policies that enhance the management of plastic packaging waste. Among the results it was found that the low recycling rate of plastic packaging is in partly due to the technical and regulatory limitations that exist at European level for the growth of innovative solutions in the plastic industry. These limitations include the complexity of plastic packaging waste streams and the lack of a single European Union Directive that harmonizes the laws of the Member States regarding the use of bioplastics, chemical recycling technologies and value-added products obtained.

Degradation of Waste Tetra Pak Packaging with Hydrothermal Treatment in Sub-/Supercritical Water.

Tetra pak packaging is one of the most frequently used types of packaging in the food industry. The recycling of the tetra pak packaging waste presents a difficult task because of its multi-layered, multi-component structure. In this study, the degradation of tetra pak packaging in subcritical (SubCW) and supercritical (SCW) water was investigated. The experiments were carried out in one (SCW) or two stages (SubCW and SCW), whereby the influence of the reaction temperature and time on the yield and composition of the products obtained was investigated. The maximum oil phase yield achieved in a one-stage and a two-stage degradation process was 60.7% and 65.5%, respectively. The oil and gas phases were composed of different types of hydrocarbons. Higher temperature and longer time led to higher amounts of saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons in both the oil and gas phases. The aqueous phase contained sugars (glucose, fructose) and sugar derivatives (levulinic acid, glyceraldehyde, furfurals). Based on these results, the degradation pathway of waste tetra pak packaging in SubCW and SCW was proposed. The results of the study show that the degradation of waste tetra pak packaging with SubCW and SCW is a promising recycling process.

Characterization and impact of oxygenates in post-consumer plastic waste-derived pyrolysis oils on steam cracking process efficiency

Mechanical recycling of mixed packaging waste has limitations due to challenging separation into pure polyolefin streams which often leads to low quality recyclates. A solution to improve overall recycling rates of polyolefins is chemical recycling. One promising approach is conversion into a liquid product via pyrolysis and subsequent steam cracking of the pyrolysis oil towards light olefins. In this study, distilled fractions of pyrolysis oils from PE and PP-rich waste were characterized via GC × GC including normal and reversed-phase column configurations with a special focus on oxygenated components. Distilled pyrolysis oils were subsequently steam cracked in 20/80 weight‐based blends with conventional naphtha. All pyrolysis oil samples contained substantial amounts of oxygenates (1–10 wt%) which poses a huge challenge for steam cracker feedstocks and it was found that ketones are the most prevailing oxygenate group. Steam cracking experiments showed slightly increased ethylene yields of the blends compared to pure fossil naphtha, with the PE-derived samples outperforming the PP-derived samples. Furthermore, diesel-range distillation cuts led to higher formation of heavy products compared to the naphtha-range cuts. Increased formation of CO was observed as a consequence of the substantial oxygen contamination which can be a deal-breaker in industrial steam crackers. This work shows that distilled pyrolysis oils with conventional naphtha are promising steam cracking feedstocks if intermediate processing steps are performed to remove the oxygenates and other impurities using, for instance, hydrotreatment. With the findings of this work, such upgrading processes can be designed in a more effective way.

Preparation of high performance thermal conductive composites from aluminum plastic packaging waste via Solid-state Drawing

Aluminum-plastic multilayer films have been widely used as the top-grade packaging material due to their exceptional barrier properties. However, the recycling of aluminum plastic packaging waste (APPW) poses a great challenge. To address this issue, we proposed a facile method for recycling APPW using solid-state drawing technology to produce high performance thermal conductivity composites for the first time. The ultrafine APPW with good processability was obtained by solid-state shear milling (S3M), with a low electrical conductivity of less than 10−12 S/cm. The subsequent solid-state drawing of both the aluminum sheet and polymer chain resulted in the formation of an oriented crystalline structure, with the Al sheet acting as an effective nucleating agent. This resulted in a significant increase in tensile strength for HDPE/APPW (30 %) composites, from 21.4 MPa to 116.1 MPa at the drawing ratio of 5. In addition, the in-plane thermal conductivity of HDPE/APPW (50 %) composites reached an impressive 2.5 W/mK, with the tensile strength of 78.8 MPa. Our findings demonstrate the potential of utilizing APPW for the production of value-added composites without requiring separation, with possible applications in heat management for emerging electrical systems and electronic devices.

Mechanical Properties of Polymers Recovered from Multilayer Food Packaging by Nitric Acid

This study conducted an in-depth examination of the delamination process of multi-layer packaging waste (MLPW) recycling, intending to find an effective solution for recycling MLPW. The recycling process for such materials can be challenging due to the complexity of separating the different layers and components. However, this study proposed using nitric acid to facilitate delamination and recover the polymers from multilayer food packaging—the research aimed to investigate the mechanical properties of the polymers obtained through this recycling method. Our study on polymer materials exposed to chemicals revealed differences in fracture and tensile strengths among three polymers, P1, P2, and P3. P1 showed fluctuating fracture strengths between 5.11 MPa and 3.55 MPa, while P2 maintained a consistent but lower value of around 0.09 MPa. P3 exhibited a wider range from 3.19 MPa to 1.79 MPa. Tensile strength analysis showed P1 averaging 4.99 MPa and P3 3.17 MPa, with P2’s data inconclusive due to its softness. Understanding the mechanical characteristics of recycled polymers is crucial to determine their potential use in different industries, including packaging, construction, or manufacturing, thereby promoting a more environmentally friendly approach to MLPW management.

Risk Factors for Poland to Achieve the European Commission’s Recycling and Landfill Targets and Their Effects on Waste-to-Energy Conversion: A Review

Poland is highly likely, as per a European Commission report, to fall short of meeting the 2025 targets related to the preparation for re-use and recycling of municipal waste and packaging waste. The risk of not meeting the municipal waste recycling targets stands at 27%, while for packaging waste, it is estimated at 30%. Recycling rates play a pivotal role in gauging the efficiency of waste management systems, as well as in monitoring progress toward a circular economy. Taking into account the considerable likelihood of Poland not achieving the recycling targets, the authors of the paper found it imperative to identify the risk factors associated with Poland’s failure to meet the European Commission’s recycling and landfill targets within the waste-to-energy context. Additionally, they sought to evaluate the potential for the development of the waste-to-energy concept in Poland. The research objectives were fulfilled through the literature review method. By employing the classification of factors outlined in a SWOT analysis, the authors highlighted which of the identified risk factors could or should be considered strengths or weaknesses, opportunities or threats to the Polish recycling process. Mapping out future courses of action will enable decision-makers in Poland to address the weaknesses in recycling, capitalize on opportunities arising from the socio-economic situation in Poland, and formulate plans to mitigate the identified threats. Undertaking such initiatives has the potential to enhance recycling rates in Poland and facilitate the broader application of waste-to-energy practices.

PLASTIC PACKAGING WASTE MANAGEMENT THROUGH FILLING MACHINE WITH AGILE REENGINEERING PROJECT MANAGEMENT APPROACH

In Indonesia, the number of plastic wastes has reached 66 million tons per year in which 50% of them come from plastic packaging waste. Meanwhile, the recycling of plastic packaging waste only reaches 14%. Hence, it is highly urgent to be aware of plastic packaging waste management in order to tackle this issue. The research discussed the capability and potential of applying digitalization and automation to Smart Retail Technology which focuses on filling machines to manage plastic packaging waste management and increase the competitive advantage. This research uses two main approaches, namely Business Process Reengineering and Agile Project Management to recommend a new business process on ongoing project. The result of the study suggests the urgency to take advantage of the QR Code and Human Machine Interface to maximize the effectiveness and results of implementing the business process. By using simulation, this effort is expected to reach up to 334 consumers each day with up to 42.14% of machine utilization.

Creating conditions for sustainability transformation through transformative governance – The case of plastic food packaging in Finland

Transformative governance is an emerging approach to addressing major sustainability challenges. Despite the mounting research on this topic, there is still limited understanding on how to create conditions for transformation in practice. Through an analytical frame of transformative governance, in this qualitative case study we investigate how policies and governance in Finland have created conditions for sustainability transformation in food packaging, a key source of plastics pollution, and how the joint implementation of different transformative approaches affects their power to induce systemic change. Our results, based on policy mapping and stakeholder interviews, show that applying principles of transformative governance is necessary but not yet effective enough for creating conditions that encourage and motivate key actors to advance in sustainability transformation. Joint implementation of different transformative approaches and modes of governance can be beneficial, but it is also challenging and may in the worst case even weaken the transformative power and slow down progress. The current governance has fostered packaging waste recycling but does not effectively solve the root cause of unsustainability: mounting consumption of single-use packaging, despite current policy targets and active use of transformative approaches. To reduce packaging consumption and create favourable conditions for packaging reuse, more emphasis is needed on transformative innovation policies, as well as setting more ambitious and proactive measures such as implementing tighter legislation and carrying out ex-ante impact evaluations when designing new policies and regulation. Integrative governance should also be strengthened to improve directionality and policy coherence.

Rigid Polyethylene Terephthalate Packaging Waste: An Investigation of Waste Composition and Its Recycling Potential in Austria

The need for increased recycling of plastic packaging waste (PPW) is apparent from a legal and waste management perspective and, therefore, further waste streams need to be investigated in detail in terms of their recycling potential. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) PW is already closed-loop recyclable (bottle-to-bottle recycling); however, other rigid PET PW is mainly thermally recovered. Explicit quantitative and qualitative data on rigid PET packaging waste are limited. Therefore, this study investigates the composition and packaging characteristics of rigid PET packaging waste contained in separate waste collection as well as in the mixed PET sorting stream in Austria by conducting a manual sorting analysis. Furthermore, the waste volume is projected, and the recycling potential is extrapolated according to new European recycling rate reporting formats. The results show that approximately 11% of separate collection represents rigid PET packaging waste. Most PW derives from food packaging and is transparent. Contained residues with more than 1% of the total packaging weight might negatively impact the sortability. The applicable net quantity indicator (ALR) amounts to 0.888 at the stage of sorting. The volume of rigid PET PW is extrapolated to 26–36 kt in 2020 with a high-quality recycling rate of 25%, which contributes 2.6% to the Austrian PPW recycling target of 50%.

Zero-waste circular economy of plastic packaging: The bottlenecks and a way forward

Interest in recycling is higher than ever, with the recycling of plastic packaging waste being a significant concern for the general public and governments worldwide. However, the rate of plastic packaging waste recycling has stagnated over the past five years. This implies current strategies are insufficient and new approaches are required. We evaluate the present situation and highlight the bottlenecks that are limiting efficient recovery of plastic packaging waste using currently available systems. Difficult to recycle thermoplastics such as polystyrene and poly(vinyl chloride) are not needed in packaging, which we propose should be based on poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), polypropylene (PP), high-density and low-density polyethylene (HDPE and LDPE respectively). Furthermore, we draw attention to the opportunity for keeping PET/PP packaging as a single waste stream, and leaving HDPE and LDPE as a standalone stream, to enable efficient plastic separation of individual types of plastic for mechanical recycling to achieve a zero-waste circular economy for all plastic packaging.

Towards a Low-Carbon Plastic Waste Recycling in Finland: Evaluating the Impacts of Improvement Measures on GHG Emissions

The use of plastics in products and packaging is growing. At the same time, the lifespan of packaging is short and consequently plastic waste volumes are growing in Finland and globally. Although separate collection and recycling of plastic packaging waste exists in Finland, it needs to be strengthened to reach the European Union’s targets. The separately collected plastic waste is mechanically recycled, but the recycling capacity is small, as is the process’s yield of secondary polymers. Hence, a large share of plastic packaging waste remains being recovered for energy. In our study, we first apply material flow analysis (MFA) to identify different routes of plastic packaging waste in Finland, and then we apply life cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the current system and of alternative scenarios based on improvement measures. Domestic GHG emissions of the studied system were estimated to be 178 kt CO2e. Net GHG emissions including exports and credits from avoided production were estimated to be 155 kt CO2e. The results of the scenario assessment indicate that combining more measures offer significantly greater potential to reduce the system’s climate impacts, compared to individual measures. The results are complemented by a sensitivity analysis, helping with the interpretation of the results, understanding modelling challenges, and supporting robust decision-making. The study contributes to academic literature in two ways; it presents a robust, yet flexible way to integrate scenario-based, future-oriented modelling techniques into decision-making, and it assesses the various possibilities to improve the plastic recycling system to identify the quantitative improvement potential.

Microbial Recycling of Polylactic Acid Food Packaging Waste into Carboxylates via Hydrolysis and Mixed-Culture Fermentation.

To establish a circular economy, waste streams should be used as a resource to produce valuable products. Biodegradable plastic waste represents a potential feedstock to be microbially recycled via a carboxylate platform. Bioplastics such as polylactic acid food packaging waste (PLA-FPW) are theoretically suitable feedstocks for producing carboxylates. Once feasible, carboxylates such as acetate, n-butyrate, or n-caproate can be used for various applications like lubricants or building blocks for making new bioplastics. In this study, pieces of industrial compostable PLA-FPW material (at 30 or 60 g/L) were added to a watery medium with microbial growth nutrients. This broth was exposed to 70 °C for a pretreatment process to support the hydrolysis of PLA into lactic acid at a maximum rate of 3.0 g/L×d. After 21 days, the broths of the hydrolysis experiments were centrifugated and a part of the supernatant was extracted and prepared for anaerobic fermentation. The mixed microbial culture, originating from a food waste fermentation bioprocess, successfully fermented the hydrolyzed PLA into a spectrum of new C2-C6 multi-carbon carboxylates. n-butyrate was the major product for all fermentations and, on average, 6.5 g/L n-butyrate was obtained from 60 g/L PLA-FPW materials. The wide array of products were likely due to various microbial processes, including lactate conversion into acetate and propionate, as well as lactate-based chain elongation to produce medium-chain carboxylates. The fermentation process did not require pH control. Overall, we showed a proof-of-concept in using real bioplastic waste as feedstock to produce valuable C2-C6 carboxylates via microbial recycling.

Express packaging waste recycling: Stakeholders’ dynamic behavioral changes based on a computational evolutionary game theoretic approach

Identifying stakeholder behaviors is crucial in managing municipal express packaging waste. Prior studies have neglected the impacts of the advertising effect and environmental preference and thus fail to detect stakeholders’ behavioral changes under different policies. To address this limitation, we build a computational evolutionary game model that integrates the advertising effect, environmental preference benefits, and economic and information policies. A numerical simulation is then conducted via a differential equation solver embedded in MATLAB software to identify the behavioral changes of the government, express delivery enterprises, and consumers. The results indicate that subsidies induce enterprises and consumers to reach their stability strategy more quickly, with maximum behavioral change rates of 0.82% and 0.64%, respectively. The marginal impacts of information policy and environmental preference benefits are greatest for consumers, whose behavioral change rates can reach 1.33% and 1.52%, respectively. For enterprises, a 1.71% behavioral change rate can be achieved by increasing the government’s effort level. An increase in enterprises’ effort level causes both enterprises and consumers to reach a stability strategy more quickly and achieves behavioral change rates of 4.21% and 1.51%, respectively. Our model can be used to predict stakeholders’ behavioral changes in the waste disposal industry, and the findings of this study provide novel ideas for waste management practitioners to use in encouraging recycling behaviors.

Research on the recycling and disposal of Chinese pesticide packaging waste based on evolutionary game theory

This study aims to determine the optimal strategy and driving factors of the critical nodes of pesticide packaging waste recycling by constructing the recycling process of “village collection–town transport–county management.” Counties, towns, and villages are the central nodes of collection, coordination, and communication in the recycling process. Their strategy selection and influencing factor analysis are related to the development of recycling. The county processing center, township transit center, and village recycling center were selected to construct a game model, and strategy and parameter assumptions were made to obtain the optimal strategy combination. The results showed that strict supervision, professional transportation and strict implementation are the best strategies for counties, towns and villages, respectively. Simulation analysis confirmed that factors such as cost, reward restricted the strategy selection of each subject. The higher the supervision, transport, and input costs, the lower the enthusiasm of counties, towns, and villages to participate in recycling, respectively. Reasonable control of reward could help each participant choose a stable strategy. The study provided the idea of a pilot before promotion for the government and emphasized the importance of controlling incentive policies and relative costs to improve the recycling process of pesticide packaging waste.

Recycling of multilayer packaging waste with switchable anionic surfactants

Switchable Anionic Surfactants (SAS) were used for delaminating flexible packaging waste composed of various plastic layers and aluminium, thereby promoting the recycling of such waste streams from a circular economy perspective. The delamination protocol was optimized on de-pulped food and beverage cartons containing low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and aluminium, varying the carboxylic acid and its counterion constituting the SAS (C8C18 carboxylic acids as the anionic part; inorganic bases and primary, secondary and tertiary amines as the cationic one) their molar ratio (carboxylic acid: base molar ratio from 1:1 to 1:3), SAS concentration (0.15, 0.3 and 0.5 wt%), time (0.5–3 h) and material weight in input (1–10 wt%). High-quality LDPE and aluminium were separated and recovered by using a diluted solution of a surfactant based on lauric acid and triethanolamine (C12-TEA), with performances not achievable with other anionic or cationic surfactants available on the market. The C12-TEA solution was then applied to a large variety of multilayer waste materials composed of polypropylene and aluminium, polyolefins/polyethylene terephthalate/aluminium, giving a material separation dependant on the structure and composition of the material in input. At the end of the process, lauric acid was recovered from the aqueous solution used for washing the separated materials by tuning its water solubility with CO2.

A Study on the Recycling Classification Behavior of Express Packaging Based on UTAUT under “Dual Carbon” Targets

The rapid development of e-commerce has brought about a sharp increase in the demand for express packaging materials, which in turn has led to problems such as resource waste and environmental pollution. Under the target of “dual carbon”, the urgency and importance of effective classification and recycling of express packaging waste cannot be ignored. Based on the unified theory of technology acceptance and use (UTAUT) model and the characteristics of express packaging, this study selected performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and perceived value as core variables, and gender, age and frequency as moderating variables, and established a structural equation through survey and analysis to study the factors influencing consumers’ willingness to recycle express packaging. The results of the study showed that performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and perceived value had a significant positive effect on consumers’ willingness to classify. Classification willingness had a significant positive effect on consumers’ classification behavior. In addition to directly influencing classification intention, performance expectancy, effort expectancy and social influence also have mediating effects. In addition, gender played a moderating role in the effects of performance expectancy and social influence on classification intention. Based on the findings, this study proposes targeted measures to promote the green and healthy development of the express delivery industry.

A historical-technical analysis of packaging waste flows in Vienna

Urban waste management plays an important role in providing secondary raw materials for packaging waste recycling. To assess measures for this provision, material flows of packaging waste for 2006–2020 in Vienna were modeled and evaluated by the separate collection rate and sorting rate. Results showed increasing separate collection rates for the years 2006-2020 for plastic bottles (20%-35%), aluminum beverage packaging (10%-22%), and beverage cartons (10%-18%) achieved by commingled collection and more collection points. Values for other aluminum (6%-5%) and ferrous metal packaging (18%-16%), however, decreased. Glass packaging increased slightly (53%-55%) and paper packaging remained constant (56%). The sorting rate of metal packaging increased significantly due to bottom ash sorting. To increase the provision of secondary raw materials, better communication with consumers and the improvement of technical sorting of mixed waste and bottom ash should be implemented. Door-to-door collection of beverage cartons, metals, and plastics should be carefully tested and evaluated before implementation.