Recycled Concrete Aggregate Content Research Articles

Application of recycled concrete aggregates in continuous-graded cement stabilized macadam

This study investigates the potential of using recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) derived from construction and demolition waste as a replacement for natural aggregate in cement-stabilized macadam (CSM). Various substitution rates of RCA, ranging from 0 % to 100 %, were examined with a focus on mechanical properties and durability, including unconfined compressive strength (UCS), indirect tensile strength (ITS), compressive elastic modulus, drying shrinkage, frost resistance, scour resistance, and water damage resistance. Nanoindentation was used to analyze the interfacial transition zones (ITZs) within the CSM. The results show that with a fixed cement content, the UCS, ITS, and compressive elastic modulus decrease as the RCA content increases. Higher RCA content also leads to reduced drying shrinkage, frost resistance, scour resistance, and water damage resistance. Nanoindentation revealed that ITZ1 and ITZ2 have similar thicknesses (∼50 μm), while ITZ3 is about 80 μm thick, highlighting the intricate physical composition of ITZs, including pores, low-density C-S-H, high-density C-S-H, and Ca(OH)2. These findings provide critical insights for optimizing sustainable CSM design using RCA, thereby promoting environmental sustainability in road construction.

Sustainable Geopolymer Concrete for Pavements: Performance Evaluation of Recycled Concrete Aggregates in Fly Ash-Based Mixtures

This study investigates the feasibility of incorporating recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) into fly ash-based geopolymer concrete for sustainable pavement applications. The research evaluates RCA’s physical and mechanical properties compared to virgin coarse aggregates (VCA) and assesses the performance of geopolymer concrete mixtures with up to 40% RCA replacement. Aggregate characterization revealed that RCA exhibited higher water absorption (4.39%), crushing value (20.9%), impact value (28.2%), and abrasion value (26.1%) compared to VCA, yet these values remained within acceptable limits for pavement applications. Geopolymer concrete specimens were tested for compressive strength, water absorption, abrasion resistance, and chloride ion permeability. Results indicated that increasing RCA content led to a gradual decrease in compressive strength, from 40.16 MPa to 33.52 MPa, while water absorption increased from 5.2% to 6.8%. Abrasion resistance declined as RCA content rose, and chloride ion penetrability increased from 1687 to 2196 coulombs. However, mixtures with up to 20% RCA replacement met the strength and durability criteria required for pavement construction. This study demonstrates the potential for utilizing RCA in geopolymer concrete pavements, offering a sustainable solution for waste management and resource conservation in the construction industry.

Comparative assessment of recycled concrete and recycled asphalt aggregate in pervious concrete: emphasis on strength and life cycle assessment

ABSTRACT Pavements create an impermeable layer, contributing to a decrease in groundwater recharge and a rise in flood frequency in urban areas. Pervious concrete pavement (PCP) is considered one of the solutions to address the problems associated with impermeability. Due to the low-strength applications of PCP and to address the environmental issues associated with recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and recycled asphalt pavement (RAP), studies have used them as replacements for natural aggregate (NA). Past studies recommended the optimum RCA or RAP content based on mechanical and durability investigations. This study investigates strength and environmental aspects of using RCA and RAP in PC by replacing NA with RCA and RAP at 30, 60, and 90% by volume. The compressive strength of RCA-PC mixtures at 7 days was found to be higher than that of RAP-PC mixtures, while RAP-PC mixtures displayed better abrasion resistance. Total embodied energy (TEE) and greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) with 90% replacement of RCA and RAP were 6.5–7.5% and 12.5–13.42% lower than control mixtures for different transportation distances, respectively. The cost-per-strength ratio indicated that RCA-PC mixtures were more preferred than RAP-PC mixtures. Overall, the study recommends 30% RCA/RAP content in PC, considering strength, cost, and environmental aspects.

Enhancing self-healing of asphalt mixtures containing recycled concrete aggregates and reclaimed asphalt pavement using induction heating

Given the growing demand for sustainable road construction materials, this research aims to evaluate the synergistic effects of incorporating recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) in asphalt mixtures. Induction heating was also utilized to enhance the self-healing ability of asphalt mixtures, with the intention of prolonging their lifespan and mitigating environmental impacts. This research assessed the pavement performance of recycled asphalt mixtures (RAM) with different RCA and RAP dosages. The induction heating performance, cooling performance, and effective heating depth of RAM were tested. Lastly, the cumulative healing efficiency of the RAM was evaluated under multiple "fracture-healing" conditions. Findings indicated that the inclusion of RCA and RAP negatively influenced the water stability, high-temperature deformation resistance, and crack resistance at low temperatures of the RAM. However, when the RCA content was 20 % and the RAP content did not exceed 20 %, the road performance of the RAM met the requirements. The contents of the RCA and RAP had no discernible effect on the RAM's induction heating capability. Moreover, when the RCA content was 20 % and the RAP content did not exceed 10 %, the effective heating depth of the RAM could reach 50 mm. Using fracture energy recovery rate as the healing index, after three cycles of "fracture-healing", the RAM with 20 % RCA achieved the highest cumulative healing efficiency of 291 %. The cumulative healing efficiency of recycled asphalt mixtures with 20 % RCA and 10 % RAP was close to that of normal asphalt mixtures. This research contributes to reducing the consumption of non-renewable resources, minimizing environmental impact, and maintaining or even improving the performance of asphalt pavements by optimizing the use of RCA and RAP.

Strength improvement of clay subgrade soil stabilised with recycled concrete aggregate and granulated blast furnace slag

In this research, a combined method of chemical and physical stabilisation has been used to investigate the effect of using recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and granulated blast furnace slag (GBS) in improving the strength properties of subgrade soil. A comprehensive series of compaction, uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and California bearing ratio tests were performed on different mixtures. The results show that UCS values increased for clay subgrade with up to 20% RCA content and decreased after that. The subgrade soil with 20% RCA was treated with GBS to obtain the target uniaxial strength for stabilised subgrade soils. Also, the results obtained from investigating the effect of freeze–thaw cycle on the UCS of the optimum combination with different GBS content show that the F-T cycle reduces the value of the UCS from 32% to 53% after 12 F-T cycles.

Modeling the impact of supplementary cementitious materials on compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete forest-random approach

Recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) may substitute some cement and natural aggregates (NA) in concrete manufacturing. However, their effects on recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) compressive strength are difficult to model. Reactivity, silica, and alumina modulus were examined for cementitious materials' chemical complexity. Random Forest approaches were developed to predict and analyze RAC compressive strength. Even with RCAs and SCMs, the RF model accurately estimated concrete compressive strength. The Variable Importance (VI) research examined how input factors affected RAC compressive strength. VI indicated that silica fume contributes most to RAC compressive strength, followed by cementitious materials' reactivity modulus, cement content, silica modulus, fine natural aggregate content, and coarse natural aggregate dosage. The water dosage, water/binder ratio, and RCA content lower the RAC compressive strength. As a result, to highlight, the amount of SCM was not significant, but its nature was (i.e., hydraulic, silica pozzolanic, or alumina pozzolanic).

Improvement of subgrade California Bearing Ratio (CBR) using recycled concrete aggregate and fly ash

The study aims to understand the effect of different admixtures on improving the quality of flexible pavement subgrades. In this paper, recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) and Fly Ash were used as the admixtures in improving the maximum dry density (MDD), swelling potential, and California bearing ratio (CBR) of subgrade soil. The percentages of RCA and fly Ash used were 5%, 10%, and 15%. With the upscaling in fly ash dosage, the optimum moisture content and the California bearing ratio increased. However, the MDD of soil decreased for higher fly ash contents. On the contrary, the optimum moisture content (OMC) of the soil decreased and the MDD and California Bearing Ratio increased with an increase in RCA content. Both RCA and fly ash-treated soil demonstrated lower values of swelling. At 5% dosage, both RCA and fly ash admixtures were found to improve CBR. However, at higher percentages (10% and 15%) of fly ash, the CBR values decreased while in comparison, soil samples performed significantly better in the CBR test with the increasing dosage of RCA. The findings of this research can be used to examine the suitability and effects of recycled aggregate and fly ash on the performance of soil in terms of CBR, particularly when the soil is planned to be used as a subgrade in highways.

Load-bearing capacity of precast recycled aggregate concrete column-to-column connections

Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) often shows different strength and deformation properties from natural aggregate concrete (NAC) and may therefore have an impact on the connections between precast concrete elements. In this work, three simple connections between precast concrete columns were considered, including a wet connection with bedding mortar, a dry connection without bedding mortar and a monolithic joint with plain concrete. An industrially produced coarse recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) was used to partially or fully replace a coarse natural aggregate in the concrete. A total of twenty-two 200 mm × 200 mm × 500 mm reinforced concrete columns were prepared and tested under axial monotonic loading through displacement control. The results show that regardless of RCA content, the equation specified in ACI 318 (ACI, 2019) and the one proposed by Vambersky (1990) provide safe estimates of the load-bearing capacity of wet connections between reinforced RAC columns.

Transforming waste into sustainable building materials: Properties and environmental impacts of Geopolymer concrete with recycled concrete aggregates

<p>Industrial by-products such as cementitious materials or aggregates have the potential to mitigate the adverse environmental effects associated with traditional cement manufacture. Geopolymer Concrete (GPC) is more eco-friendly than conventional concrete because it does not require cement. GPC with Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA), Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), and Fly Ash (FA) reduce raw material use and create sustainable infrastructure. GPC compounds increase workability, slump value above standard concrete, and reduce the amount of water usage. The study examines GPC mechanical properties, durability, and environmental properties with different RCA content. The M30 concrete mix design is established by trial and error utilizing a 0.45 water/binder ratio. GPC with 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% recycled coarse aggregate replaced natural aggregate(NA) by mass. GPC with 50% GGBS provides an early strength of 96% of normal compressive strength on day seven. The compressive, split tension, and flexural strengths exhibit significant improvement with up to a 40% substitution of NA with RA. These results highlight GPC's potential as a sustainable alternative in the construction sector.</p>

Characteristics of non-steady-state chloride migration of self-compacting concrete containing recycled concrete aggregate made of fly ash and silica fume

Chloride migration poses a significant challenge to the long-term durability of concrete structures due to its potential to corrode reinforcement and deteriorate the structure. This study focuses on chloride migration in self-compacting concrete (SCC) made with pozzolans, namely silica fume (SF) and fly ash (FA), along with recycled concrete aggregate (RCA). Particularly, the effects of external electrical potential (power-on) duration and RCA content on the features of SCC were examined, alongside the influence of pozzolanic materials, focusing on the chloride migration coefficient and mechanical properties. Six groups of SCC mixtures were created with varying proportions of SF and FA, and different levels of RCA replaced the natural coarse aggregate. The findings reveal a multifaceted impact on SCC behaviour. The chloride migration coefficient exhibits a distinct pattern as the power-on duration increases from 12 to 36 h. Initially, the coefficient increases and then decreases, demonstrating a healing and sealing mechanism within the concrete matrix, which enhances resistance to chloride penetration. The chloride migration coefficient significantly decreased with adding SF and FA. With 15% SF and 30% FA, the coefficient decreased to 59.9% and 49.5%, respectively. Moreover, incorporating RCA in SCC mixtures significantly influences coefficient levels. RCA inclusion at 20% remarkably decreased the coefficient after 12 h by 16.17%. Subsequently, the levels decreased by 39.49% and 46.87% after 24 and 36 h, respectively, compared to the control mixture. This behaviour highlights the importance of RCA in enhancing the resistance of SCC to chloride ingress, a crucial factor for long-term durability. Additionally, mechanical properties such as splitting tensile strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity and surface hardness consistently improved with longer power-on durations and higher RCA and SF content. SCC with RCA and pozzolanic materials exhibits enhanced chloride resistance and superior mechanical performance, making it ideal for sustainable concrete production.

Flexural behavior of the reinforced t-beam containing hybrid recycled-aggregate self-compacting concrete

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) flows under its weight and resists segregation, distinguishing it from conventional concrete. Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) offers a sustainable alternative to natural aggregates, reducing resource depletion and enhancing environmental properties. This study experimentally investigates the flexural behavior of nine T-beams composed of hybrid SCC with varying reinforcement ratios (ρ1= 0.45%, ρ2= 1.05%, ρ3= 1.85%) and different RCA proportions (0%, 50%, 100%) in the web zone. At the same time, the flange was cast using only SCC. Four-point load tests were conducted to assess the impact of RCA replacement and reinforcement on the beams' performance. Results indicate that RCA replacement reduces the drop in loading capacity with increased reinforcement, improving both stiffness and bearing capacity. Additionally, higher RCA content shifted the failure mode from flexural to shear, particularly in beams with higher reinforcement ratios, demonstrating RCA use's economic and environmental benefits.

Circular Economy Assessment of Recycled Concrete with Life Cycle

This research examines the life cycle costing (LCC) of concrete produced using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) combined with sustainable fibers, including carbon nanofibers and natural sisal fibers, as substitutes for traditional natural aggregates. A series of concrete mixtures were formulated with RCA content levels of 0%, 50%, and 100%, incorporating various fiber combinations, while some mixtures were further enhanced with supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash (FA) or silica fume (SF). The study included a thorough assessment of mechanical properties, including compressive strength, flexural strength, and split tensile strength, to evaluate the performance of these concrete mixtures. The findings indicated that the integration of sisal and carbon nanofibers significantly improved mechanical properties, suggesting that while using 100% RCA (Mix C9) resulted in a slight reduction in strength, it still outperformed conventional concrete. This research highlights the economic advantages of utilizing RCA and sustainable fibers in concrete formulations, demonstrating how life cycle costing can provide a framework for promoting sustainable construction practices that enhance resource efficiency and minimize overall project costs in the context of a circular economy.

Compressive and Flexural Strengths of Bio-Recycled Concrete Incorporated with Kenaf Fibre

ABSTRACT Kenaf fiber (KF) has been applied in concrete to compensate for the weak tensile strength. Similarly, recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) is applied to reduce problems associated with waste concrete materials. However, both KF and RCA reduce the compressive strength (fck) of concrete. This study involves addition of calcite-producing bacillus subtilis bacteria to recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) incorporated with KF. The bacteria is added to concrete with varying proportions of RCA and KF to produce bio-fibrous recycled concrete (BFRC). The proportions of RCA are 0%, 25% 50% and 75% replacement of coarse aggregate, while KF are 0.2%, 0.5% and 1% of concrete. W/C of 0.45, 0.5, and 0.6 are applied to evaluate the effects of different w/c ratios. The properties evaluated are the fck and the flexural strength (ft) of the concrete samples at 28 days. The results showed that 0.2% KF in bio-concrete (BC) increases the fck by 12%; however, increasing above 0.2% decreases fck. KF in BC increases ft by 60%. Furthermore, 0.5% KF content resulted in highest ft of BRC. Increasing RCA content in bio-recycled concrete and BFRC decreases fck by 30% and 33%, respectively, as well as ft by 13% and 18%, respectively.

Utilization of recycled coarse aggregate and high volume of GGBS in self-compacting concrete – an experimental study

Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the behaviour of M40 grade of self-compacting concrete (SCC) with high volume of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) (50%) and recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) content up to 100% to assess the mechanical properties of SCC. As per guidelines of IS: 383 – 2016, the RCA can be replaced up to 20% of natural coarse aggregate up to M25 grade of concrete. This study assesses the mechanical properties of SCC beyond 20% of RCA content. Based on the experimental investigations, the compressive strength of mixes decreases as the content of RCA increases. It is found that concrete mixes with 20% RCA and shows the maximum compressive strength at 56 days. Design/methodology/approach The fresh properties as per EFNARC and IS: 10262–2019 guidelines, ultrasonic pulse velocity testing, mechanical properties and microstructure analysis have been conducted to evaluate the performance of SCC with RCA for practical applications. Findings From the experimental investigations, it is found that up to 50% of recycled coarse aggregate can be used for structural applications. Originality/value The environmental pollution and dumping of waste on green land can be reduced by effective utilization of recycled coarse aggregate and GGBS in the production of SCC.

Utilization of recycled concrete aggregates for pavement base courses – A detailed laboratory study

Pavement construction and maintenance have become prevalent globally due to increasing traffic volumes and higher vehicular axle weights, driven by population growth and technological advancements. However, the extensive reliance on natural resources raises concerns about their long-term availability and sustainability. An emerging trend in construction involves the application of alternative materials, such as demolished waste and industrial by-products, as substitutes for natural materials like aggregates. This study examined strength properties, including unconfined compressive strength (UCS), flexural strength, elastic modulus, indirect tensile strength (ITS) and the performance aspects of durability, shrinkage, and fatigue. Cement stabilized recycled concrete aggregate (CSRCA) mixes were prepared by varying the percentage of natural coarse aggregate (NCA) and recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) from 0% to 100% and cement content from 3% to 7%. The experimental findings demonstrated that the cement content had a more significant impact on the strength and performance characteristics of CSRCA mixes than RCA content. The mixes with RCA replacement up to 50% and a cement content of 5% satisfy the strength and durability criteria recommended by IRC 37. A higher proportion of RCA was found to have a detrimental effect on mechanical properties and fatigue characteristics. It was found that the CSRCA mixes with 50% RCA replacement to NCA can be used as a base layer instead of a conventional cement-treated base (CTB) for flexible pavement.

Effect of differently treated recycled concrete aggregates on Marshall properties and cost-benefit of asphalt mixtures

Marshall properties are one of the major requirements for designing hot asphalt mixtures. These properties need to be evaluated to make sure that asphalt pavement performs well over its service life. The evaluation of the Marshall properties of asphalt mixtures containing coarse recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) was the study's main target. RCA properties differ from virgin aggregate in the presence of cement mortar. To improve RCA properties, two methods were adopted. The first, termed pre-soak treatment, consisted of soaking RCA in acetic acid for 24 hours at a concentration of 0.1 M. The second one, termed mechanical treatment, involved placing RCA inside the Los Angeles machine with balls and running it for 500 cycles. RCA was incorporated into asphalt mixtures at percentages 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% of coarse virgin aggregate. The results of the study showed that replacing virgin aggregate with RCA led to economic feasibility. Despite the amount of asphalt binder increasing as coarse RCA content increased, the characteristics of HMA were not significantly altered except for Marshall stability. The maximum increase in Marshall stability happened in the mixture containing 60% untreated RCA; it was 14.78% greater than the control mixture.

Properties of sustainable self-compacted concrete with recycled concrete and waste tire crumb rubber aggregates

The concrete building industry has to adhere to stringent sustainability standards. In previous investigations, the utilization of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) from construction and demolition waste (CDW) or crumb rubber (CR) from waste tires in producing sustainable self-compacted concrete (SCC) was well studied; however, the combined effect of RCA and CR on the performance of SCC is scarce. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of developing SCC mixtures containing both RCA and CR and their influence on the performance of SCC. Three distinct series of SCC mixes were designed so that the water-to-binder ratio and total binder content were kept at 0.32 and 505 kg/m3. In the first series, the effect of RCA content (0%, 50%, and 100%) in place of natural coarse aggregate (NCA) on the performance of SCC mixtures was studied. Moreover, the effect of various CR contents (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%) as a sand substitution and 50% RCA was investigated in the second series. In the third series, the influence of CR inclusion and 100% RCA was utilized to promote the sustainability of SCC. The fresh behavior of the mixtures was assessed by measuring followability, viscosity, and segregation resistance. Density, water absorption, and apparent porosity for all mixes were also examined. The mechanical properties were assessed for compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural strengths. The findings show that the inclusion of RCA and CR has an adverse impact on the fresh, physical, and mechanical properties of SCC, excluding segregation resistance. However, it is possible to produce a SCC using 100% RCA and 40% CR with a slump flow diameter of 605 (SF1 class) and a compressive strength of greater than 31 MPa, which is applicable for structural applications. Moreover, the ACI and Euro code CEB-FIP proposed models can predict the mechanical properties of the developed SCC made with recycled materials. This research could contribute to a more sustainable SCC by substituting recycled materials for natural aggregates.

Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA)-based asphalt mixtures: A performance-related evaluation with sustainability-criteria verification

This investigation aims to explore the feasibility of using Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) as a partial replacement for Natural Aggregates (NAs) in the production of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) and Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA). As WMA technology, Iterlow T (a chemical additive) was selected. For both types of asphalt mixtures, the RCA dosages of 0, 15, 30 and 45% by weight of coarse aggregates were considered. Notably, four different RCA sources were assessed, and the alkali-silica reaction and attached mortar quantity were analyzed for each one. In order to examine the effect of the coarse RCA on the performance-related properties of the asphalt mixtures, a test protocol was conducted. This protocol comprised four tests, i.e., stiffness modulus, moisture susceptibility, rutting resistance, and fatigue life. Additionality, a sustainability-criteria verification was performed employing the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) methodologies. Respectively, the LCA and LCCA estimate each alternative's environmental impacts and production costs. Consequently, the main finding obtained were: (i) as the coarse RCA content increases, asphalt mixtures exhibit a reduction in their mechanical performance; (ii) the performance-related properties of the HMAs and WMAs with a 15% RCA dosage are acceptable, but more elevated amounts generate highly noticeable deterioration; and (iii) 15% of coarse RCA minimizes the environmental burdens and maximizes the cost-effectiveness of the asphalt mixtures fabrication. Thus, the main contribution to the literature that achieves this research is to perform a comprehensive multi-criteria examination on the potential of the RCA as a recycled material to minimize the depletion of non-renewable resources.

ANN approach to evaluate the effects of supplementary cementitious materials on the compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete

The growing awareness of environmental issues has triggered significant research into the impacts generated on the environment during concrete production. To improve sustainability in this process, ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and natural aggregates (NA) have been replaced by recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) to reduce the negative issues to the environment. However, the use of SCMs can be challenging due to their complex chemical composition, and RCAs are often of inferior quality compared to NAs, leading to reduced concrete strength. To address these issues, an artificial neural networks (ANN) model has been used for calculating the compressive strength of concrete mixes that oodórate SCMs and RCAs. To train the model, 1181 concrete mixtures from 116 sources were included, considering parameters such as hydraulic reactivity, silica, and alumina modulus. In this research was found that the ANN model is an effective instrument to predict concrete strength even with the use of SCMs and RCAs. The analysis of input variables using the Connection Weight Approach (CWA) concludes that silica fume is the external material that, when mixed with RCA, significantly improves the resistance of concrete, followed by the reactivity modulus of cementitious materials, cement content, silica modulus, fine NA content, and coarse NA dosage. Conversely, excessive ood dosage, high ood/cement ratio, and excessive RCA content (fine and coarse) negatively affect concrete strength.

Neural networks implementation for the environmental optimisation of the recycled concrete aggregate inclusion in warm mix asphalt

Regarding the traditional Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA), Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) with Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) contents (WMA-RCA) requires lower production temperatures and diminishes the consumption of natural aggregates (NAs). Nonetheless, these environmental benefits may be counteracted by the higher optimal asphalt binder demanded by the WMA-RCAs. In this regard, this research develops a computational model to optimize the WMA-RCA design. In order to build a sufficiently accurate and adaptable model, it was decided to employ Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs). The ANN implementation was based on the postulates of the statistical learning theory, i.e., preferring to generate learning through low-complexity models. Also, a representative case study of the northern region of Colombia was assessed. In this scenario, the optimal coarse RCA content was 10%, and the sustainability savings were maintained up to an RCA's hauling distance of 200 km.