Recycled Aggregate Research Articles

Investigating coconut shell biochar as a sustainable solution for removing iron residues in recycled concrete aggregates

Investigating coconut shell biochar as a sustainable solution for removing iron residues in recycled concrete aggregates

Matrizes cimentícias com o uso de resíduos de construção e demolição para redução do impacto ambiental de blocos de pavimentação

The construction industry is responsible for the intensive consumption of natural resources and the generation of large volumes of construction and demolition waste (CDW), which are often disposed of improperly. This research developed concrete blocks using recycled CDW aggregates, promoting sustainability and circular economy by reusing these materials in urban infrastructure. Waste was collected from a recycling plant over five months, selecting Brita 1, Brita 0, and Pó de Brita to compose the concrete mixes. Particle size distribution, bulk density, and specific gravity tests were performed, and blocks and specimens were molded with 100% replacement of natural aggregates by CDW. The compressive strength tests were carried out at 14 and 28 days, while the abrasion test was performed only at 28 days. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to characterize the products. The results indicated a compressive strength of 34.3 MPa at 28 days, close to the minimum required by the standard (35 MPa). XRF analysis showed a predominance of SiO₂, CaO, Al₂O₃, Fe₂O₃, MgO, SO₃, and K₂O oxides, all within normative limits. Leaching and solubilization tests, conducted according to NBR 10005 and NBR 10006, classified the waste as non-hazardous and non-inert. This study demonstrates that using CDW in concrete block production is a viable and sustainable alternative, contributing to waste reduction, material reuse, and the development of sustainable urban infrastructure.

Study on Microstructure of Recycled Aggregate Concrete by Scanning Electron Microscopy: A Review

Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC) is a new type of concrete made by utilizing waste concrete as aggregate after treatment. With the enhancement of environmental awareness and resource conservation, but the microstructural part of recycled aggregate concrete is not as important as the macro performance enhancement aspect by scholars. And Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a powerful tool for microanalysis, which can provide high-resolution images of samples as well as information on surface morphology and microstructure. In this paper, the micro-structure of RAC will be comprehensively analyzed according to the performance characteristics of RAC materials and the relevant analysis technology of SEM. Based on the microscopic technology of SEM, the research progress of the micro-structure of RAC was carried out, and the morphology and distribution characteristics of recycled aggregate particles, pore structure and porosity, the interface combination between recycled aggregate and cement matrix, and the relationship between micro-structure and RAC properties were summarized, which provided theoretical support for the future understanding of the micro-structure of RAC, increased the understanding of the micro-structure of RAC materials, and more systematically understood the application of microscopic analysis methods in RAC.

Constructed wetlands using recycled aggregates for the improved treatment of tailwater.

Recycled aggregates from the construction industry could be effective materials for constructed wetland (CW) wastewater treatment systems. However, whether the plants or which kinds of plants can survive in CWs with recycled aggregates or not is still scarce and urgent to study. The effects of different plant species, and several operation parameters on tailwater treatment from the sewage plants by CWs with different substrates (mixed construction recycled aggregate [MCRA], red brick [RB], and gravel) are systemically studied. The results showed that the average removal efficiencies of the chemical parameters in MCRA-CWs with seven plants, such as Cyperus alternifolius, were higher than those of RB-CWs and Gravel-CWs. In the MCRA-CWs, the average removal efficiencies of Typha orientalis, Cyperus alternifolius, and Phragmites australis were 77.58%, 75.09%, and 73.16%, respectively, which were higher than those of the other plants. Meanwhile, Proteobacteria had the highest relative abundances in MCRA and RB at 54.98% and 69.22%, respectively, whereas Cyanobacteria (35.21%) were the most abundant in the gravel. The influence of season on water purification was significant (p<0.05) in the MCRA. Overall, water quality purification was dependent on season, HRT, and C/N, which accounted for 86.1%, 13%, and 7.1%, respectively. The highest average removal efficiencies of the MCRA-CWs were 71.98% (COD), 85.58% (NH4+-N), 95.01% (TN), and 84.11% (TP) when the HRT was 3d and C/N ratio was 2.5 in the summer. This indicates that treated recycled construction aggregates could be used as substrates in CWs and have both wastewater purification and environmental improvement effects, thus achieving the purpose of "treating the wastes with wastes".

Environmental Conservation by Using Recycled Aggregates: Enhancing Sustainability in Road Construction

Every day, construction and demolition waste is generated worldwide. As the road business and traffic grow, construction materials have evolved to include more unorthodox features. Road construction and maintenance rely significantly on quarried aggregates, resulting in high resource extraction demands. There is a trend toward employing secondary (recycled) materials rather than primary (virgin) ones to address this. This transformation requires the use of a variety of secondary and tertiary components, including waste byproducts. Numerous studies have been conducted to study and analyze the suitability and practical application of recycled materials in the field. Some recycled materials have better qualities than others, proving satisfactory performance in real-world circumstances. However, concerns about their incorporation persist, based on laboratory research and field observations. These concerns emphasize the necessity for more in-depth research to address potential difficulties. It is claimed that using recycled and tertiary materials in road construction can greatly help to save natural resources. This study predicts the attributes of selected materials, such as gradation, water absorption, maximum dry density, impact value, flakiness, and elongation, to establish their appropriateness for the production of Granular Sub-base (GSB) and Wet Mix Macadam (WMM).

Prediction Model for the Chloride Ion Permeability Resistance of Recycled Aggregate Concrete Based on Machine Learning

The chloride ion permeability resistance of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is influenced by multiple factors, and the prediction model for this resistance based on machine learning is still limited. In the paper, six impact factors (IFs), including the carbonation of recycled coarse aggregates (YN), the replacement ratio of recycled coarse aggregates (r), the bending load level (L), the carbonation time (t) and temperature (T) of RAC, and the replacement ratio of carbonated recycled fine aggregates (f), were considered to conduct a chloride penetration test on RAC. Based on the experimental data, four algorithms, including artificial neural network (ANN), support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF) and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), were adopted to establish the machine learning prediction models and study the relationships between the electric flux of RAC and the IFs. The results showed that the predicted values of all four models were in good agreement with the experimental values, and the XGBoost model had the best prediction performance on the testing set. Based on the XGBoost model, the LIME method was adopted to solve the interpretability problem in the prediction process. The importance ranking of IFs on the electric flux was r &gt; t &gt; f &gt; T &gt; L &gt; YN. A graphical user interface (GUI) was developed based on Python 3.8 software to facilitate the use of machine learning models for the chloride ion permeability resistance of RAC. The research results can provide an accurate prediction of the electric flux of RAC.

Sustainability assessment and impact of different recycled rubber aggregates on the performance of cement mortars

Sustainability assessment and impact of different recycled rubber aggregates on the performance of cement mortars

Optimizing sustainable concrete mixes with recycled aggregate and Portland slag cement for reducing environmental impact

Concrete is the world’s most extensively manufactured material, with the integration of recycled materials becoming crucial for sustainable construction. This study investigates the mechanical properties of concrete mixes containing Recycled Aggregates (RA) and Portland Slag Cement (PSC) to understand their suitability for sustainable construction applications. Utilizing normal-strength concrete with a compressive strength of 35 MPa and a 0.45 water-to-cement ratio, fifteen mix designs were tested, varying RA and PSC replacement levels from 0 to 100% and 0% to 50%, respectively. Comprehensive mechanical testing, including compressive and tensile strength assessments at 7 and 28 days, alongside modulus of elasticity and stress–strain curve evaluations, was conducted. The results reveal that full replacement of Natural Aggregate (NA) with RA decreased compressive strength by 10% and modulus of elasticity by 20%. However, a partial replacement of 25% of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) with PSC, in the presence of RA, moderated the reduction of compressive strength to 0.92% and increased the modulus of elasticity by 3.7%. The optimum mix, consisting of 75% OPC, 25% PSC, and 50% RA, significantly enhances concrete’s mechanical properties, recommending it for reinforced concrete applications due to its potential environmental and structural benefits.

Potential application of by-products from the construction industry and waste from coconuts for concrete road paving blocks: physical and mechanical properties

ABSTRACT This paper analyzes concrete paving blocks (CPB) with mixed recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste (CDW) as by-products and coconut fibres (CF) as waste, a novelty of these types of blocks, through physical and mechanical characterisation. Then, eighteen mixtures were used to produce rectangular CPB 20 cm × 10 cm × 8 cm (length × width × thickness): three without CDW and CF (with natural aggregate), six with CDW materials (3 replacing natural aggregate by weight in 50%, and other 3 in 75%), three with CF (adding a percentage of 0.1% by concrete weight), and six with CDW materials and CF. Tests, such as visual inspection, water absorption, voids, and compressive strength at 7 and 28 days, were done for blocks CPB with three water/cement ratios of 0.63, 0.73, and 0.83. The results showed that the mixes with different uses of CDW and CF behave better than the equivalent reference mixtures. Then, the study supports the CPB with CDW materials and CF can be used on light motorised trafficked road pavements.

Optimisation and Composition of the Recycled Cold Mix with a High Content of Waste Materials

This research focuses on a mineral–cement mixture containing bitumen emulsion, designed for cold recycling procedures, the formulation of which includes 80% (m/m) of waste material. Deep cold recycling technology from the MCE mixture guarantees the implementation of a sustainable development policy in the field of road construction. The utilised waste materials include 50% (m/m) reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) from damaged asphalt layers and 30% (m/m) recycled aggregate (RA) sourced from the substructure. In order to assess the possibility of using a significant amount of waste materials in the composition of the mineral–cement–emulsion (MCE) mixture, it is necessary to optimise the MCE mix. Optimisation was carried out with respect to the quantity and type of binding agents, such as Portland cement (CEM), bitumen emulsion (EMU), and redispersible polymer powder (RPP). The examination of the impact of the binding agents on the physico-mechanical characteristics of the MCE blend was performed using a Box–Behnken trivalent fractional design. This method has not been used before to optimise MCE mixture composition. This is a novelty in predicting MCE mixture properties. Examinations of the physical properties, mechanical properties, resistance to the effects of climatic factors, and stiffness modulus were conducted on Marshall samples prepared in laboratory settings. Mathematical models determining the variability of the attributes under analysis in correlation with the quantity of the binding agents were determined for the properties under investigation. The MCE mixture composition was optimised through the acquired mathematical models describing the physico-mechanical characteristics, resistance to climatic factors, and rigidity modulus. The optimisation was carried out through the generalised utility function UIII. The optimisation resulted in indicating the proportional percentages of the binders, enabling the assurance of the required properties of the cold recycled mix while utilising the maximum quantity of waste materials.

The influence of fine recycled asphalt pavement aggregates on the properties of self-compacting mortar in fresh and hardened state

Sustainable development is a contemporary concern in the field of asphalt pavements, as road construction consumes a significant amount of new aggregates. Furthermore, road maintenance necessitates the milling of old pavement layers, which generates a substantial quantity of bituminous material waste. This study explores the use of recycled sand from asphalt waste as a substitute for 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% of natural sand in self-compacting mortar, aiming to achieve both sustainable and economical asphalt production. The differences in physical properties between natural sand (NS) and fine recycled asphalt pavement (FRAP) aggregates are analyzed and compared. The characteristics of the various self-compacting mortars are measured, including spread, flow time, as well as compressive and tensile strength, shrinkage and sorptivity. Compared to the control mortar, the mortars containing RPAS exhibit a rougher surface, additional pores, and more complex pore structures. The need for superplasticizers increases with the substitution rate, as do the rheological parameters. The results indicate that recycled mortar can be an alternative to natural sand, although this comes with negative impacts on the mechanical properties of the mortar. Nonetheless, these effects can be mitigated when considering their economic and environmental implications.

Durability and Compressive Strength of Composite Polyolefin Fiber-Reinforced Recycled Aggregate Concrete: An Experimental Study

This study investigates of using recycled concrete aggregates along with the reinforcement of polyolefin fibers to augment both the compressive strength and durability of concrete, in alignment with the principles of sustainable development. This study experimentally investigated the compressive strengths and durability of composite polyolefin fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete (PFRRAC) exposed to chloride and acidic environments. For this purpose, 150 cubic samples of 100 × 100 × 100 concrete with various combinations of recycled aggregates and polyolefin fibers were made and subjected to axial compressive loading. The results show that the addition of fibers significantly enhances the compressive strength of concrete, with an increase of up to 34.36% at 5% fiber content. However, increasing the proportion of recycled aggregates reduces the compressive strength, with reductions ranging from 21.12% to 43.85% as the recycled aggregate content rises to 70%. Moreover, the combination of fibers and recycled aggregates demonstrates potential for improving the sustainability and durability of concrete under challenging environmental conditions, particularly in chloride and acidic environments. In acidic environments, the inclusion of fibers significantly enhances the resistance to strength reduction. Furthermore, the study uncovers that a higher concentration of recycled aggregates exacerbates the reduction in strength in chloride-rich settings, emphasizing the imperative nature of meticulous mix design and material selection. The findings for the integration of even minor quantities of polyolefin fibers to amplify the performance and sustainability of concrete mixtures, especially when utilizing recycled aggregates, thus promoting eco-friendly construction practices.

Effect of nano silica-cement paste impregnation-carbonation reinforcement on the properties of low-quality recycled aggregates

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of a nano silica (NS) -cement paste impregnation-carbonation strengthening technique on both the properties of low-quality recycled aggregates and the recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) they form. First, the changes in the basic properties of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) after reinforcement were evaluated, followed by pore structure, XRD, thermo-gravimetric analysis, nanoindentation, and SEM tests to explore the microstructure and the mechanism of its influence. The results showed that the crushing value of the recycled aggregate reinforced with NS-cement paste impregnation-carbonation composite were reduced about 35 %, compared to the unreinforced recycled aggregate. The crushing value and water absorption were reduced about 17 % and 28 %, respectively, compared to cement slurry impregnated-carbonated reinforced recycled aggregates. The addition of NS promoted the hydration of cement in the encapsulated slurry, and some unreacted nanoparticles in turn filled the pores of the hardened cement slurry, reducing the porosity of the recycled aggregate. The performance of the ITZ is improved after the aggregate is reinforced. The 28 d compressive strength of recycled concrete formulated with NS-cement paste impregnation-carbonation-reinforced aggregates was increased about 34 % and 52 % for 50 % and 100 % substitution rates, respectively. In conclusion, this study elucidated the mechanism of NS-cement paste impregnation-carbonation strengthening on the properties of recycled aggregates and provided a theoretical basis for the application of NS-cement paste impregnation-strengthening in construction materials.

Mechanical characteristics and microscopic mechanism of polypropylene fiber modified recycled road solid waste fine aggregate mortar

Recycled fine aggregate (RFA) is a recycled building material obtained by crushing and screening waste concrete, which is the main raw material for producing recycled aggregate mortar (RAM). However, due to the defects of RFA such as many cracks, high porosity and large fragmentation index, RAM has problems such as low compressive strength and poor flexural strength, which limits its large-scale application in mortar engineering. In this paper, a series of experiments were carried out to verify that the addition of polypropylene fiber (PPF) improves the mechanical strength of RAM. Four lengths (3mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm) and three dosages (0.3%, 0.6%, 0.9%) of PPF were added, and their effects on the compressive strength and flexural strength of RAM were studied. The test results show that the addition of PPF can improve the compressive strength and flexural strength of RAM and increase the toughness of RAM. The addition of PPF with 0.6% dosage and 12mm length can increase the compressive strength of RAM by 57% and the residual strength by 73%. The addition of PPF with 0.9% dosage and 12mm length can increase the flexural strength of RAM by 58% and the fracture energy by 163%. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results show that PPF can improve the microstructure of RAM. The effective bonding between the matrix and PPF is observed, which increases the mechanical strength of RAM. In addition, PPF is pulled out and broken, proving that PPF effectively plays its bridging and stretching role in the matrix. Moreover, a prediction model for the effect of PPF length and dosage on the compressive strength and flexural strength of RAM is proposed, which can provide theoretical basis for practical engineering and reference for related researches. This study proposes a negative carbon method for applying road solid waste to engineering mortar, which can provide theoretical basis for practical engineering and reference for related research.

Experimental study on chloride ion permeability of carbonated recycled aggregate concrete considering the effects of multiple factors

The chloride ion permeability is an important index of durability of carbonated recycled aggregate concrete (CRAC), but the resistance to chloride ion permeability of CRAC is affected by many factors and has yet been fully explored, which needs further systematic study. Considering the effects of the replacement ratio of carbonated recycled coarse aggregate (CRCA), the carbonation time of CRAC, the bending load level, the carbonation temperature of CRAC, and the replacement ratio of carbonated recycled fine aggregate (CRFA), the resistance to chloride ion permeability of CRAC was investigated by conducting tests in this paper. The results indicated that, compared with the non-carbonated recycled aggregate concrete (NCRAC), the electric flux of CRAC decreased by 9.14% to 37.34%. An increase in the replacement ratio of CRCA could reduce the resistance to chloride ion permeability of CRAC, while an increase in CRAC carbonation time had a significant effect on improving the resistance to chloride ion permeability. When the replacement ratio of CRCA was 100%, as the carbonation time increased from 0 to 14 days, the maximum reduction in electric flux of CRAC was 31.66%. With the same replacement ratio of CRCA, as the bending load level increased, the decrease in electric flux of CRAC showed an increasing trend compared to that of NCRAC. The resistance to chloride ion permeability of CRAC could be improved with an increase in carbonation temperature. Compared with the CRAC with carbonation temperature of 20 °C, the electric flux of the CRAC with carbonation temperature of 40 °C decreased by 11.03%. When the replacement ratio of CRFA was in the range of 0 to 20%, the resistance to chloride ion permeability of CRAC could be improved by incorporating CRFA, but the improvement effect was not significant. Therefore, compared with the NCRAC, the resistance to chloride ion permeability of CRAC is enhanced, and the research results can provide data support for the engineering application of CRAC.

Enhancement of Recycled Aggregate Concrete Properties Through the Incorporation of Nanosilica and Natural Fibers

This study introduces an innovative approach to enhancing recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) by incorporating nanosilica (NS) and natural fibers (NF), specifically sisal fiber (SF) and palm fiber (PF). This novel combination aims to overcome the inherent limitations of RAC, such as reduced strength and durability, while promoting sustainability in construction. The research focuses on evaluating the mechanical properties of RAC, including compressive and flexural strengths, through the integration of NS and NF. Our findings reveal that NS significantly improves the microstructure of RAC by enhancing the interface transition zone (ITZ) and filling nanovoids, resulting in a denser and more durable concrete matrix. Specifically, the addition of 3% NS increased the compressive strength of RAC by up to 22.5% and the flexural strength by up to 25.6% at a 100% replacement ratio of recycled aggregate. The addition of NF, treated to withstand the alkaline environment of concrete, further strengthens the RAC by providing a bridging effect that enhances flexural strength by up to 46.7%. This work not only advances the performance of recycled concrete but also aligns with the broader goal of environmental sustainability by utilizing waste materials and reducing the carbon footprint of concrete production. The findings have the potential to influence future construction practices, encouraging the adoption of more durable and eco-friendly building materials.

Mechanical Properties and Microscopic Mechanism of Steel Slag, Sodium Sulfate and Cement Stabilized Road Demolition Waste

When recycled aggregate (RA) from road demolition waste is used as a road base, its engineering performance tends to be poor and requires stabilization. Cement is the most commonly used stabilizer, but it is a high energy consuming product. Therefore, in this article, steel slag powder (SP) and sodium sulfate (SS) are used to replace part of cement to stabilize crushed stone (RCS). The effects of SP content, SS content and curing age on the mechanical properties and microstructure of cement stabilized aggregates were studied using unconfined compression, triaxial shear, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) tests. The results show that appropriate SP and SS adding improve the compressive strength of RCS, and the RCS strength reaches its maximum when the SP content was 10%. Moreover, the SS addition can further enhance the strength of cement+SP stabilized RA, a maximum strength was obtained when the SS content is 1.5%. The shear strength of specimen was enhanced by SP and SS its increasing its cohesion. SP promote the hydration reaction and fills the pores in the RCS specimen, while SS can stimulate SP to accelerate the SP hydration reaction in the SP stabilized RCS specimen, thus further improving the strength of the stabilized RA, and generating gels such as C-S-H gel, C-A-H gel, C-A-S-H gel in the cement stabilized RA with SP+SS powder.

Effect of CO2 curing on mechanical and physical properties of the recycled aggregates containing silica fume

CO2 curing is a promising method for enhancing the properties of the recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) due to its economic and environmental benefits. However, the knowledge about its effectiveness in improving the properties of aggregates derived from blended supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) remains limited. This study explores the impact of CO2 curing on the mechanical and physical properties, mineralogical composition, and microstructural changes of recycled aggregates incorporating varying amounts of silica fume (SF). The results showed that upon the incorporation with 5wt% SF, CO2 curing increased the compressive strength of the aggregate samples by 17.9%. The microhardness improved from 50 to 56 HV with the addition of 10wt% SF. Moreover, CO2 curing modified the physical characteristics of the samples regardless of SF content. However, it caused mechanical degradation in samples containing 20wt% SF, at both marco- and micro-scale. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed that higher SF dosages led to the formation of poorly crystallised CaCO3 during CO2 curing. Additionally, Low-field 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR), N2 adsorption/desorption, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and thermodynamic models showed that the carbonation products enlarged the capillary pores, and reduced the solid volume of the hydration products. Those findings underscore the importance of calcium hydroxide in protecting against mechanical degradation in SF-blended recycled aggregates during CO2 curing. This study provides an insight of the carbonation of SF-blended composites, potentially accelerating the application of CO2 curing on RCAs.

Influence of steam curing on cyclic triaxial characteristics of recycled aggregate concrete: Experimental analysis and DEM simulation

The engineering application of steam-cured recycled aggregate concrete (often in a cyclic triaxial stress state) can not only improve the recycling efficiency of resources, but also accelerate the construction progress. In this paper, we adopt a combination of laboratory experiments, theoretical analysis and numerical simulation to study the cyclic triaxial characteristics of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) under different curing regimes (20℃, 40℃, 60℃ and 80℃). The results indicate that as the steam curing temperature increases, the internal damage caused by high temperature continues to intensify, and the cyclic triaxial failure mode of RAC transitions from shear failure to compression failure, and its peak strength, dynamic elastic modulus, and dilatancy angle all show a downward trend. A linear prediction model is established based on the strong correlation between peak strength and steam curing temperature. As the loading cycles increase, the dynamic elastic modulus and dilatancy angle of RAC show exponential and linear downward trends respectively, and the decline rate increases with the increase of steam curing temperature, and the prediction models for dynamic elastic modulus and dilatancy angle are established based on quantitative relationships between variables. On the basis of experimental analysis results, a cyclic triaxial DEM model considering real recycled aggregates is established by introducing steam-cured damage indexes into the mesoscopic parameters, and its applicability in predicting cyclic triaxial mechanical properties of RAC under different curing regimes is verified. The research outcomes can save a lot of test cost and time consumption for developing steam-cured concrete with better performance, and have important theoretical guidance and practical significance for the wide application of steam-cured concrete.

Evaluation of the engineering properties and sustainability of solid masonry blocks produced with recycled concrete aggregates

The rapid expansion of global infrastructure has led to significant natural resource shortages and increasing environmental concerns related to construction and demolition (C&D) waste. Recycling C&D waste presents a viable solution to alleviate resource depletion and promote sustainability. This study explores the use of recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) derived from C&D waste in producing solid masonry blocks (SMBs). RCAs were employed to replace both natural coarse and fine aggregates in these blocks. Physical and mechanical properties of SMBs were tested, including hardened density, compressive and flexural strengths, and water absorption. The findings showed that decreased strength and increased water absorption for cement-to-aggregate ratio (C: A) increased from 1:6 to 1:24; however, all produced SMBs satisfied the requirements specified by Indian and ASTM standards. The study concluded that using 100% RCAs in SMBs is structurally sound and environmentally beneficial, meeting international standards. Employing recycled aggregate concrete blocks lowers environmental impact and aids in sustainable development by facilitating the life-cycle closure of the building materials.