Recreation Specialization Research Articles

Recreational Specialization: A Critical Look at the Construct

Recreational specialization has generally been treated by leisure researchers as a measure of intensity of involvement and has been used to explore variation among activity participants in terms of their preferences, motivations, attitudes, and the like. A close look at Bryan's (1977, 1979) original writings, however, reveals that he regarded specialization foremost as a developmental process that entails a progression in behavior, attitudes, and preferences. In this paper, we examine how researchers might go about examining recreational specialization as a developmental process. We envisage specialization as a progression in behaviors, skills, and commitment. We also describe progression in terms of stages of involvement, career changes, and turning points. Findings from various studies, however, suggest that progression is not a typical career path pursued by recreation participants. Indeed, progression may well be the least common trajectory among recreation participants. To better understand the dynamics of progression, we examine a variety of individual and socio-cultural factors and events that are likely to facilitate or impede people's movement along the specialization continuum over time. We conclude the paper with suggestions for future research.

How Specialized is Specialization Research?

David Scott and Scott Shafer's paper Recreational Specialization: A Critical Look at the Construct offers a timely and thoughtful synthesis of a concept that has received nearly 25 years of research attention in the literature. Their review of the specialization literature reflects the maturing of a research emphasis that is moving beyond some of the implicit and explicit definitional disputes over measurement constructs experienced in any emerging research field. Their paper also asks research to move beyond the descriptive segmentation of participants within a recreational activity, and to think about processes of change in participation. Their focus on change effectively reminds researchers of Bryan's (1977) original formulation of specialization as a developmental process; a model of change over time in the way people participate in activities. It is easy to recognize change in our own, and others' style of participation in a activity. With repeated engagements, we become more capable participants, we begin to think differently about the activity and how it fits in our everyday routines, and we tend to develop an attachment to the activity and the social meanings connected to participation. The specialization construct provides an intuitively appealing model of socialization to describe these developmental processes. After reviewing the specialization literature and featuring their model of progression, however, the authors conclude that [a] lthough some people certainly progress (and some to an status), most probably either maintain involvement at a relatively fixed level or actually decrease their participation over time. They also argue that many participants may have little or no desire to become specialists. I generally agree with their conclusion, and have argued before that the specialization process may not be a linear (Kuentzel & McDonald, 1992). Other evidence cited by Scott and Shafer also questions the general to particular assumption of the specialization process. Their response to this dilemma is a call to the antecedents or underlying progress-a sort of leisure constraints approach to explaining variation in the of participants in a activity. The mechanisms of progression they outline are important and viable research questions for researchers. Yet, in theorizing why many participants do not become specialists, they steadfastly maintain their commitment to the specialization framework. I would argue, however, that their conclusion raises difficult questions for the specialization concept, and that some of its assumptions deserve further critical scrutiny. The reason many people do not become specialists may lie in the way specialization is conceptualized. Scott and Shafer's review suggests to me three questions about the specialization concept: 1) Is the concept theoretically too broad and too analytically accommodating?, 2) Is the concept of progress valid in contemporary society?, and 3) does the specialization concept characterize a new leisure elite that describes a minority rather than a majority of participants? Is the Specialization Concept too Broad? In trying to understand the contingencies of progress, specialization research must accommodate an expanding diversity of disciplinary questions. Scott & Shafer's review makes reference to behavioral psychology, cognitive psychology, existential philosophy, geography, gender analysis, class analysis, ethnicity, self-identity, and social networks. One could easily add to this list a variety of social science sub-disciplines that ask questions about social norms, values and attitudes, demography, life course analysis, time analysis, and many others. The diversity of questions about recreation specialization that each of these social science sub-disciplines could ask may indeed be interesting and important. …

Comments on Recreational Specialization: A Critical Look at the Construct

Comments on Recreational Specialization: A Critical Look at the Construct

Reply to David Scott and C. Scott Shafer, “Recreational Specialization: A Critical Look at the Construct”

Reply to David Scott and C. Scott Shafer, “Recreational Specialization: A Critical Look at the Construct”

Comments On Recreational Specialization: A Critical Look At The Construct

Comments On Recreational Specialization: A Critical Look At The Construct

Degree and Range of Specialization Across Related Hunting Activities

Recreation specialization was examined among a sample of Pennsylvania resident hunters who hunted in the 1992?1993 hunting season. Using Iterative Proportional Fitting to define hunting activity, hunters were assigned to one of seven hunting activities based on days of participation. A 12-page questionnaire was completed by 1,006 hunters (representing a 78% response rate). The dimensions used to define recreation specialization were participation, skill, lifestyle, and equipment. Levene's test for homogeneity and a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were conducted to determine differences in degree and range of specialization for hunters in the seven activities. Results indicated that both degree and range of specialization varied significantly across the different types of hunting activities, which supports Bryan's (1979) hypothesis that differences in degree and range of specialization can be found in specific types of recreation under a larger activity heading. A hierarchy of hunting subactivities by specialization is provided.

Recreation Specialization Revisited

(2000). Recreation Specialization Revisited. Journal of Leisure Research: Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 18-21.

Segmenting participation in wildlife watching: A comparison of casual wildlife watchers and serious birders

The purpose of this study was to examine participation patterns of two different segments of the wildlife watching population: casual wildlife watchers and serious birders. We used Texas Conservation Passport holders and members of the American Birding Association to represent the views of these two groups of wildlife watchers. Consistent with the recreation specialization framework, these two groups were defined in terms of their skill at identifying birds, frequency of participation, yearly expenditures, and birdwatching behaviors close to home. Further analysis revealed many significant differences in participation characteristics between casual wildlife watchers and serious birders. Specifically, there were differences in the types of information sources used for trip planning and differences in desired setting preferences. The implication of this study is that managers and planners will be able to more effectively target casual wildlife watchers and/or serious birders with the appropriate promotional strategy and provide the desired products and services.

Differences in Attitudes, Fishing Motives, and Demographic Characteristics between Tournament and Nontournament Black Bass Anglers in Texas

We tested for differences between tournament and nontournament black bass anglers in their motives for fishing, attitudes, and demographic characteristics. Fewer than one-fifth (17.8%) of black bass anglers in Texas participated in black bass fishing tournaments. Tournament anglers were younger, fished more frequently, and were more likely to be male and belong to fishing clubs than nontournament anglers. Tournament anglers viewed themselves as more skilled than nontournament anglers. Also, tournament anglers differed significantly from nontournament anglers on each of 7 catch-related motives studied and on 2 of 10 noncatch motives (“experience adventure and excitement” and “experience new and different things”). Tournament anglers differed significantly from nontournament anglers on 11 of 15 attitudinal statements regarding catch. Our results were generally consistent with those from two previous studies of saltwater tournament anglers. Differences between tournament and nontournament anglers also were consistent with predictions based on the concept of recreation specialization and suggest that tournament anglers represent a relatively more specialized angler group than do nontournament anglers. Among nontournament anglers who had fished while a tournament was in progress, 51% believed tournaments negatively affected their fishing quality and 44% did not believe that most fish released at tournaments survived. These perceptions, as well as differences between nontournament and tournament anglers in the specific types of fisheries they prefer, probably will lead to conflict within the black bass fishery if they are ignored by fisheries managers. Nontournament anglers may become alienated and oppose management actions if they believe tournament anglers are favored in allocation decisions or management strategies, particularly because many nontournament anglers believe tournaments are detrimental to both their fishing activity and the fishery resource.

Specialization and differences in setting preferences among wildlife viewers

We asked nonresident visitors to Montana about their preferences for wildlife‐viewing settings. Subjects were classified into three groups based on a measure of wildlife‐viewing specialization. Specialists have greater interest in “lower profile”; wildlife species than do Novices. Seeing upland game birds, birds of prey, and songbirds was desired by many more people in all three segments than were successful at observing these wildlife. Specialist viewers were more likely to hike self‐guided viewing trails and read signs along trails than Novices. Novices were more interested in facility developments at wildlife‐viewing sites than were Specialists, but Specialists showed strong support for trails and interpretive efforts. There was widespread agreement among the groups on the most useful types of information. Our results support the idea that recreation specialization is a useful tool for segmenting recreationists. By recognizing segments and understanding their preferences, managers can produce the best fit between resource opportunities and people.

Segmentation of the Angler Population by Catch Preference, Participation, and Experience: A Management-Oriented Application of Recreation Specialization

Abstract Segmentation of the angler population by catch preference. experience, and participation can help fishery managers understand diversity in consumptive preferences and attitudes among recreational anglers. Estimates of the sire and number of angler groups can also provide an understanding of the relative demand for the different types of fishing experiences sought. These types of angler information are often collected with mailed surveys, but segments of the angler population may be underrepresented because of nonresponse bias. A 10-page mail questionnaire was sent to a stratified random sample of 9,981 Texas fishing license holders. Information was collected on fishing participation. fishing experience, club membership, tournament participation. activity-specific attitudes, and opinions on fishery management options. Response rate was 62% (exclusive of surveys that could not be delivered). Adjustments for nonresponse were made with response propensity stratification. Groups of anglers were formed...

Exploring forest and recreation management preferences of forest recreationists in Alberta

Understanding social values of stakeholder groups is an essential part of ecosystem management. Values of one stakeholder group, campers at managed sites in the Rocky-Clearwater Forest of Alberta, were examined using campground management preference and forest attitude scales. On-site and mail surveys were used to collect data from campers during 1994. Four specialization clusters were delineated that identified differences in management preferences. Campers most familiar with the area and those with the most camping experience were the least supportive of traditional timber management and campground development. Overall, campers did not support increased facility development at campgrounds. This study suggests that campers may be supportive of an ecosystem approach to forest management that incorporates nontimber values. Key words: camping, ecosystem management, forest recreation, management preferences, recreation specialization, social values

Purism revisited: Specifying recreational conditions of concern according to resource intent

Abstract Understanding differences in recreational users, activities, and resource choices is essential to balanced management of outdoor recreation resources. Measures of purism (one's attitudinal orientation toward an ideal) facilitate this understanding for wilderness recreation but have been superseded by the related concept of recreation specialization. Purism is revisited to determine if it is still useful in understanding differences in recreationists. Stankey's (1972) Purism scale and specific wilderness condition measures were administered by questionnaire to recreational users of a designated wilderness. Results indicated that purism was significantly related to different levels of concern for wilderness condition domains defined as human impacts, natural features, solitude, management confinement, and primitive travel conditions. It was concluded that measuring the alignment of one's attitudes with intended resources and their use is essential to understanding attitudinal aspects of recreationa...

Recreation Specialization in the Social World of Contract Bridge

Using data from a yearlong qualitative investigation, this paper investigated the nature of recreation specialization in the social world of contract bridge. Specialization was examined in terms of players' participation within the context of two distinct subworlds: social bridge and serious bridge. Four types of players were identified: tournament players, regular duplicate players, regular social players, and occasional players. The players were differentiated in terms of intensity of identification, meaning of participation, frequency of play, game and setting preferences, orientation to competition and skill developmental, and other criteria. While tournament players were the most specialized of the four groups, the groups did not fit along a developmental sequence as generally hypothesized in recreation specialization research. In fact, many bridge players resisted becoming more specialized. Results from this study suggest that future research on recreation specialization must look more carefully at the self-defining nature of recreation participation. The process of specialization or becoming serious appears to be related to a desire to develop skills at an advanced level.

A Management-Oriented Approach to Understanding Diversity among Largemouth Bass Anglers

Abstract We sent a mail survey to participants in a Texas sport fishery for largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides. Respondents were divided into two groups according to the specificity of responses to an open-ended mail survey question asking which species of fish they most preferred to target in Texas freshwaters. One group consisted of those who gave a general response (i.e., “bass”) and the other was those who gave a specific response (i.e., “black bass,” or “largemouth bass” or “bigmouth bass”). We found significant (P < 0.05) differences between these angler groups in fishing motives and attitudes, years of fishing experience, annual fishing frequency, and investment in fishing. Group differences were consistent with predictions based on the concept of recreation specialization and provide initial evidence that specificity of angler identification of species preferences is a managerially useful surrogate for general level of angler specialization. Additional work is necessary to verify these results ...

Environmental Preference and Risk Recreation: The Case of White Water Kayakers

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine environmental preferences in one-risk recreation activity. The sample comprised participants in the white water kayaking program at the Nantahala Outdoor Center in North Carolina. Using a mail survey, the author found that this sample prefers a natural environment, scenery, and clean river water but is rather indifferent to man-made manipulations such as comfort facilities and paved access roads. Using analysis of variance, the author found skill-level differences among novice, intermediate, and advanced kayakers on 7 of the 14 items. The implications of this study should prompt further theoretical work in other risk recreation activities, recreation specialization, and the psychological needs of river users. For the manager, this research suggests more integrative approaches to management of river resources.

Differential Effects of Past Experience, Commitment, and Lifestyle Dimensions on River Use Specialization

Recreation specialization proposes that participation in an activity progresses along a continuum from general to specific modes of perception and behavior. Research typically measures an individua...

Recreation Specialization: Re-conceptualization from a Social Worlds Perspective

This paper initiated development of a theory of recreation specialization from a social worlds perspective and provided empirical testing for some of the stated propositions. Recreation specializat...

Recreation specialization reexamined: The case of vehicle‐based campers

Abstract Measurement of recreation specialization has been limited to the observation and recording of behaviors associated with activities and has ignored, to a large extent, individual affective attachment to participation. This article reports on the development of a construct called recreation involvement, which includes measures of both prior participation history and affective attachment (enduring involvement). In recognition of the multidimensional nature of the construct, a cluster‐analysis procedure was used to differentiate four subgroups of vehicle‐based campers, each of which showed different recreation involvement profiles. Subsequently, evidence is presented to show that variation in the focus of recreation involvement, as demonstrated by the profiles, influenced attitudes of campers toward management strategies and character of facility provision in the study area.

Recreation Specialization As an Indicator of Environmental Preference

Recreation specialization was examined as an underlying element of behavior that varies with the type and importance of environmental settings desired by recreationists. Subjects were backcountry hikers from three Intermountain West primitive areas who responded to a mailed questionnaire that assessed their level of hiking specialization and preferences for 38 environmental setting attributes. These attributes were representative of physical, social, and managerial settings. All three types of setting attributes exhibited significant relationships, with the degree of hiking specialization suggesting that specialization may be a useful concept for explaining developmental related changes in environmental perception. The results were interpreted as suggesting that current recreation management practices that focus on broad generalizations about recreation activities may be insensitive to the array of diversity sought by the recreating public.