Recognition Memory Test For Faces Research Articles

Memory retrieval effects as a function of differences in phenomenal experience.

Conscious experience and perception are restricted to a single perspective. Although evidence to suggest differences in phenomenal experience can produce observable differences in behavior, it is not well understood how these differences might influence memory. We used fMRI to scan n = 49 participants while they encoded and performed a recognition memory test for faces and words. We calculated a cognitive bias score reflecting individual participants' propensity toward either Visual Imagery or Internal Verbalization based on their responses to the Internal Representations Questionnaire (IRQ). Neither visual imagery nor internal verbalization scores were significantly correlated with memory performance. In the fMRI data, there were typical patterns of activation differences between words and faces during both encoding and retrieval. There was no effect of internal representation bias on fMRI activation during encoding. At retrieval, however, a bias toward visualization was positively correlated with memory-related activation for both words and faces in inferior occipital gyri. Further, there was a crossover interaction in a network of brain regions such that visualization bias was associated with greater activation for words and verbalization bias was associated with greater activation for faces, consistent with increased effort for non-preferred stimulus retrieval. These findings suggest that individual differences in cognitive representations affect neural activation across different types of stimuli, potentially affecting memory retrieval performance.

Facial memory ability and self-awareness in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy after anterior temporal lobectomy.

Anterior temporal lobectomy (ATL) is the most common surgical treatment for drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Right ATL has been reported to reduce facial memory ability in patients with TLE, as indicated by poor performance on the Warrington Recognition Memory Test for Faces (RMF), which is commonly used to evaluate visual memory in these patients. However, little is known about whether patients with TLE exhibit difficulties in identifying faces in daily life after ATL. The aim of this study was to investigate facial memory ability and self-awareness of face identification difficulties in patients with TLE after ATL. Sixteen patients with TLE after right ATL, 14 patients with TLE after left ATL, and 29 healthy controls were enrolled in this study. We developed the multiview face recognition test (MFRT), which comprises a learning phase (one or three frontal face images without external facial feature information) and a recognition phase (frontal, oblique, or noise-masked face images). Facial memory abilities were examined in all participants using the MFRT and RMF, and self-awareness of difficulties in face identification was evaluated using the 20-item prosopagnosia index (PI20), which has been widely used to assess developmental prosopagnosia. The MFRT performance in patients with TLE after ATL was significantly worse than that in healthy controls regardless of the resected side, whereas the RMF scores in patients with TLE were significantly worse than those in healthy controls only after right ATL. The MFRT performance in patients with TLE after both left and right ATL was more influenced by working memory load than that in healthy controls. The PI20 scores revealed that patients with TLE after left ATL were aware of their difficulties in identifying faces. These findings suggest that patients with TLE not only after right ATL but also after left ATL might have difficulties in face identification.

MRI morphology of the hippocampus in drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy: Shape inflation of left hippocampus and correlation of right-sided hippocampal volume and shape with visuospatial function in patients with right-sided TLE

We sought to quantify the morphology in vivo of hippocampi in patients with drug resistant temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), prior to temporal lobe resection, and the correlation of surface-based shape analysis of morphology and clinical cognitive function.Thirty patients with drug-resistant TLE and twenty healthy controls underwent clinical neuropsychological testing, and brain MRI at Lund University Hospital prior to hippocampal resection. A neuroradiologist categorised radiological findings into normal hippocampus, subtle changes or definite hippocampal sclerosis. We manually segmented MRI of the hippocampus of participants using ANALYZE 11.0 software; and analysed hippocampal shape using SPHARM-PDM software.For radiologist visual-ratings of definite left hippocampal sclerosis in those with left-sided TLE, hippocampal volumes were significantly smaller compared to normal controls. In right-sided TLE we found contralateral shape inflation of the left hippocampus, partially confirming previous shape analytic studies of the hippocampus in TLE. We found significant correlation of volume and surface deflation of the right hippocampus in right-sided TLE with reduced performance on the two right-lateralised visuospatial memory tests, the Rey Complex Figure Test (Immediate and Delayed recall) and the Recognition Memory Test for faces. Decreased hippocampal volume was correlated with poorer performance on these tasks.The morphology of the hippocampus can be quantified via neuroimaging shape analysis in TLE. Contralateral shape inflation of the left hippocampus in right-sided TLE is intriguing, and may result from functional compensation and/or abnormal tissue. In right-sided TLE, hippocampal structural integrity, quantified as hippocampal shape, is correlated with lateralised visuospatial function.

Supplementation With Whey Peptide Rich in β-Lactolin Improves Cognitive Performance in Healthy Older Adults: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study.

Epidemiological reports showed that consumptions of fermented dairy products are beneficial for cognitive decline in elderly. Our previous preclinical studies have demonstrated that intakes of whey peptide rich in the β-lactolin [β-lactopeptide of glycine-thereonine-tryptophan-tyrosine (GTWY)] improve memory and attention by regulating monoamine system, and clinical study using neuropsychological test suggested that consumptions with GTWY-rich whey peptide enhance cognitive performance associated with the frontal cortex activity. However, corresponding interventional studies in humans are limited. Objectives: to evaluate the effects of the whey peptide on cognitive functions in healthy older adults using a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial design. 114 healthy subjects aged 50–75 were supplemented with the whey peptide or placebo for 12 weeks, and changes in cognitive function were assessed using neuropsychological tests at weeks 0, 6, and 12 of the intervention. Neuropsychological tests included assessments for memory functions (subtests from Wechsler memory scale-revised, standard verbal paired-associate learning test, and recognition memory test for faces), assessments for attention (cancelation and detection tests), and assessments for general cognitive functions (repeatable battery for assessments of neuropsychological status). Cerebral blood flow was also assessed using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) after 6 weeks of intervention. This study was registered on the 19 November, 2017 in the database of the University Hospital Medical Information Network (UMIN) prior to enrollment of subjects (Registration No. UMIN000030461: https://www.umin.ac.jp/ctr/index-j.htm). In the whey peptide group, visual paired-associates I and visual cancelation tests were significantly improved compared with those in the placebo group at weeks 6 and 12 of the intervention, respectively. Visuospatial and constructional scores of the repeatable battery for assessments of neuropsychological status and standard verbal paired-associate learning tests (S-PA) also tended to be improved by the intervention at week 12. Daily intakes of GTWY-rich whey peptide show beneficial effects on cognitive performance, especially associative learning memory and control of attention, in healthy older adults and might prevent age-related cognitive declines.

Interaction Between Val158Met Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Polymorphism and Social Cognitive Functioning in Schizophrenia: Pilot Study.

The Val158Met catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) functional polymorphism may influence social cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia. Aspects of social cognition were evaluated with the Facial Expression Recognition Test, the Voice Emotion Recognition Test, and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test. The Short Recognition Memory Test for Faces was used as a control measure. The Schedule for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms, Schedule for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms, and Beck Depression Inventory were used to rate of patient symptoms. There were 100 patients with the following genotypes: Val/Val (21), Met/Met (30), and Val/Met (49). The genotype distribution of polymorphism of Val158Met COMT did not differ between the patient and control groups. Schizophrenia carriers of the Val/Val genotype performed worse in social cognitive measures, in comparison with the other groups. No statistically significant correlations were recorded between age at schizophrenia onset and polymorphism of Val158Met COMT. There was an influence of genotype in the control group: the Met homozygotes performing better. Schizophrenia patients homozygous for the Val allele showed significant disadvantages over patients homozygous or heterozygous for the Met allele in social cognitive processes. The COMT genotype may not, however, contribute to the age of onset of schizophrenia.

The Oxytocin Receptor Gene (OXTR) and Face Recognition

A recent study has linked individual differences in face recognition to rs237887, a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR; Skuse et al., 2014). In that study, participants were assessed using the Warrington Recognition Memory Test for Faces, but performance on Warrington’s test has been shown not to rely purely on face recognition processes. We administered the widely used Cambridge Face Memory Test—a purer test of face recognition—to 370 participants. Performance was not significantly associated with rs237887, with 16 other SNPs of OXTR that we genotyped, or with a further 75 imputed SNPs. We also administered three other tests of face processing (the Mooney Face Test, the Glasgow Face Matching Test, and the Composite Face Test), but performance was never significantly associated with rs237887 or with any of the other genotyped or imputed SNPs, after corrections for multiple testing. In addition, we found no associations between OXTR and Autism-Spectrum Quotient scores.

Intact social cognitive processes in outpatients with anorexia nervosa: a pilot study.

ObjectiveThe aim of the study was to assess social cognition in community patients suffering from anorexia nervosa (AN) compared to healthy controls.Methods25 women diagnosed with AN and 25 women matched for education level and age were involved in the study. Both subject groups were assessed using a set of validated experimental tasks, such as the facial expression recognition test, short recognition memory test for faces, ‘Reading the mind in the eyes’ test. Patients were assessed for symptoms of: eating disorder (the eating attitudes test—EAT-26), OCD (the Yale–Brown obsessive compulsive scale—Y-BOCS) and depression (Beck depression inventory—BDI). The research hypothesis indicated that patients suffering from anorexia represent no significant difference in social cognitive functioning in comparison to the healthy controls. These assessment scales were used to identify whether there are any problems according to social cognitive functioning especially emotion recognition and theory of mind (ToM). The primary outcome assessment was to identify social cognitive deficits in anorexic outpatients and secondary outcome was to verify whether these problems in emotional functioning found in women in acute phase of AN are state or trait effects.ResultsAnorexic patients showed significantly higher scores on EAT-26, BDI and Y-BOCS. No significant differences were found in performance of social cognitive tests and facial perception test.DiscussionNo marked alterations were found in social cognitive functioning in community patients with average body mass index (BMI) of 17.6. This may indicate that social cognition is a very complex construct to be reliably measured in anorexia nervosa considering relatively limited psychometric data for many social cognitive tasks. Further longitudinal studies are needed to untangle ongoing controversy whether social cognitive deficits in AN could be state or trait related.

Social Cognition and Visual Perception in Schizophrenia Inpatients Treated with First-and Second-Generation Antipsychotic Drugs

Social cognition captures affect recognition, social cue perception, "theory of mind," empathy, and attributional style. The aim of our study was to assess social cognition in schizophrenia inpatients being treated with first-generation antipsychotic drugs (FGAs), n=28 (perphenazine and haloperidol, FGAs) or with second-generation antipsychotic drugs (SGAs), n=56 (olanzapine and clozapine, SGAs). Eighty-four patients completed the Facial Expression Recognition Test, the Voice Emotion Recognition Test, the Short Recognition Memory Test for Faces, and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test. Patients also completed the Visual Object and Space Perception Test (VOSP) as a control task, which would not engage social cognition. The patients were compared with fifty healthy controls matched for age and gender. There were no significant differences on social cognitive performance between the FGA- and SGA-treatment groups. Nor was olanzapine superior to clozapine, FGAs or both. However, patients treated with FGAs performed significantly worse on VOSP compared to both groups treated with SGAs, a 10% difference. We cannot conclude that SGAs were associated with better social cognition than FGAs. However, there were small but significant advantages for SGAs in non-social visual processing function, as evaluated with the VOSP.

Cognitive, biochemical, and imaging profile of patients suffering from idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus

It has still not been clearly established whether the cognitive deficits of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) are caused by a disturbance in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics or an underlying metabolic disturbance. To identify the possible associations between biochemical markers, the neuroimaging characteristics, and cognitive deficits of patients undergoing investigations for possible iNPH. A CSF sample obtained during a lumbar puncture from 10 patients with iNPH was analyzed for several biochemical markers (lactate, 8-isoprostane, vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF], neurofilament heavy protein, glial fibrillary acidic protein, amyloid beta 1-42, and total tau). All patients underwent a battery of neuropsychological testing and imaging as part of their selection process for their suitability for CSF diversion surgical procedure. Volumetric analysis of imaging was carried out measuring the ventricular volume (VV), intracranial volume (ICV), periventricular lucencies, deep white matter hyperintensities, and white matter (WM) volume, as well as their ratios. A significant negative correlation of preoperative symptom duration and total tau levels (R = -0.841, P = .002) was found. There was a significant positive correlation (R = 0.648, P = .043) between the levels of VEGF and the VV/ICV ratio. There was a significant positive correlation of the levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein and the VV/deep white matter hyperintensities ratio (R = 0.828, P = .006). A significant negative correlation was observed between the levels of neurofilament heavy protein and the VV/ICV ratio (R = -0.657, P = .039) and the WM volume (R = -0.778, P = .023). Lactate levels were lower for patients performing in the normal range on the Recognition Memory Test for faces. Patients who performed better in the Recognition Memory Test words test had higher ICV volumes. All the patients in this study showed below normal performance when the subcortical function was assessed. The positive correlation of VEGF with the severity of ventriculomegaly may indicate that this is because of the transmantle pressure gradient; this response may not be because of hypoxia but represents an attempt at neuroregeneration. The degree of reactive gliosis correlates inversely with the severity of WM lesions. Neuronal degeneration is negatively correlated with the volume of the WM in these patients. The small association of volumetry and the cognitive profile of these patients may be consistent with a direct biochemical disturbance being responsible for the cognitive deficit observed. Ongoing studies with set protocols for neuropsychological assessment and volumetric analysis are warranted to further elucidate on the preliminary results of the current study.

Neural bases of autobiographical support for episodic recollection of faces

Incidental retrieval of autobiographical knowledge can provide rich contextual support for episodic recollection of a recent event. We examined the neural bases of these two processes by performing fMRI scanning during a recognition memory test for faces that were unfamiliar, famous, or personally known. The presence of pre-experimental knowledge of a face was incidental to the task, but nonetheless resulted in improved performance. Two distinct networks of activation were associated with correct recollection of a face's prior presentation (recollection hits vs. correct rejections) on one hand, and with pre-experimental knowledge about it (famous or personally known vs. unfamiliar faces) on the other. The former included mid/posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus, and ventral striatum. The latter included bilateral hippocampus, retrosplenial, and ventromedial prefrontal cortices. Anterior and medial thalamic activations showed an interaction between both effects, driven by increased activation for recollection of unfamiliar faces. When recollecting the presentation of a famous or personally known face, hippocampal activation increased with participants' ratings of how well they felt they knew the person shown. Ventromedial prefrontal cortex showed significantly greater activation for personally known than famous faces. Our results indicate a dissociation between the involvement of retrosplenial vs. mid/posterior cingulate and precuneus in memory tasks. They also indicate that, during recognition memory experiments, the hippocampus supports incidental retrieval of pre-experimental knowledge about the stimuli presented. This type of knowledge likely underlies the additional recollection found for prior presentation of well known stimuli compared with novel ones and may link hippocampal activation at encoding to subsequent memory performance more generally.

O.056 Proteomic analysis of cerebrospinal fluid in idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (INPH)

It has still not been clearly established whether the cognitive deficits of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus (iNPH) are caused by a disturbance in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics or an underlying metabolic disturbance.To identify the possible associations between biochemical markers, the neuroimaging characteristics, and cognitive deficits of patients undergoing investigations for possible iNPH.A CSF sample obtained during a lumbar puncture from 10 patients with iNPH was analyzed for several biochemical markers (lactate, 8-isoprostane, vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF], neurofilament heavy protein, glial fibrillary acidic protein, amyloid beta 1-42, and total tau). All patients underwent a battery of neuropsychological testing and imaging as part of their selection process for their suitability for CSF diversion surgical procedure. Volumetric analysis of imaging was carried out measuring the ventricular volume (VV), intracranial volume (ICV), periventricular lucencies, deep white matter hyperintensities, and white matter (WM) volume, as well as their ratios.A significant negative correlation of preoperative symptom duration and total tau levels (R = −0.841, P = .002) was found. There was a significant positive correlation (R = 0.648, P = .043) between the levels of VEGF and the VV/ICV ratio. There was a significant positive correlation of the levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein and the VV/deep white matter hyperintensities ratio (R = 0.828, P = .006). A significant negative correlation was observed between the levels of neurofilament heavy protein and the VV/ICV ratio (R = −0.657, P = .039) and the WM volume (R = −0.778, P = .023). Lactate levels were lower for patients performing in the normal range on the Recognition Memory Test for faces. Patients who performed better in the Recognition Memory Test words test had higher ICV volumes. All the patients in this study showed below normal performance when the subcortical function was assessed.The positive correlation of VEGF with the severity of ventriculomegaly may indicate that this is because of the transmantle pressure gradient; this response may not be because of hypoxia but represents an attempt at neuroregeneration. The degree of reactive gliosis correlates inversely with the severity of WM lesions. Neuronal degeneration is negatively correlated with the volume of the WM in these patients. The small association of volumetry and the cognitive profile of these patients may be consistent with a direct biochemical disturbance being responsible for the cognitive deficit observed. Ongoing studies with set protocols for neuropsychological assessment and volumetric analysis are warranted to further elucidate on the preliminary results of the current study.

Recognition memory for faces and scenes in amnesia: Dissociable roles of medial temporal lobe structures

The relative contributions of the hippocampus and the perirhinal cortex to recognition memory are currently the subject of intense debate. Whereas some authors propose that both structures play a similar role in recognition memory, others suggest that the hippocampus might mediate recollective and/or associative aspects of recognition memory, whereas the perirhinal cortex may mediate item memory. Here we investigate an alternative functional demarcation between these structures, following reports of stimulus-specific perceptual deficits in amnesics with medial temporal lobe (MTL) lesions. Using a novel recognition memory test for faces and scenes, participants with broad damage to MTL structures, which included the hippocampus and the perirhinal cortex, were impaired on both face and scene memory. By contrast, participants with damage limited to the hippocampus showed deficits only in memory for scenes. These findings imply that although both the hippocampus and surrounding cortex contribute to recognition memory, their respective roles can be distinguished according to the type of material to be remembered. This interaction between lesion site and stimulus category may explain some of the inconsistencies present in the literature.

Hereditary Prosopagnosia: the First Case Series

Prosopagnosia is defined as a specific type of visual agnosia characterised by a discernible impairment in the capacity to recognise familiar people by their faces. We present seven family pedigrees with 38 cases in two to four generations of suspected hereditary prosopagnosia, detected using a screening questionnaire. Men and women are impaired and the anomaly is regularly transmitted from generation to generation in all pedigrees studied. Segregation is best explained by a simple autosomal dominant mode of inheritance, suggesting that loss of human face recognition can occur by the mutation of a single gene. Eight of the 38 affected persons were tested on the Warrington Recognition Memory Test for Faces (RMF; Warrington, 1984), famous and family faces tests, learning tests for internal and external facial features and a measure of mental imagery for face and non-face images. As a group, the eight participants scored significantly below an age- and education-matched comparison group on the most relevant test of face recognition; and all were impaired on at least one of the tests. The results provide compelling evidence for significant genetic contribution to face recognition skills and contribute to the promise offered by the emerging field of cognitive neurogenetics.

Warrington's recognition memory for faces: interpretive strategy and diagnostic utility in temporal lobe epilepsy

Performance on Warrington's Recognition Memory Test for Faces (RMF) is thought to rely largely on the integrity of the right temporal lobe. Epilepsy research, however, has been mixed with respect to the diagnostic utility of the RMF. Based on the psychometric properties of the RMF, we investigated the moderating role of intelligence on test classification accuracy in 53 presurgical patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Classification accuracy rates were poor for the entire sample, but when the sample was divided based on IQ, classification statistics showed a strong degree of diagnostic utility for the RMF among patients with lower IQ levels versus those with higher IQ levels. These findings support the diagnostic utility of the RMF in epilepsy and underscore the moderating role of intelligence on RMF performance.

Understanding memory for faces in Parkinson’s disease: the role of configural processing

It has previously been reported that unfamiliar face recognition memory is impaired in Parkinson’s disease (PD) [(Dewick, H. C., Hanley, J. R., Davies, A. D. M., Playfer, J. R. & Turnbull, C. J., Perception and memory for faces in Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychologia, 1991, 29, 785–802), (Haeske-Dewick, H. C., Are perception and memory for faces influenced by a specific age at onset factor in Parkinson’s disease? Neuropsychologia, 1996, 34, 315–320), (Levin, B. E., Llabre, M. M. & Weiner, W. J., Cognitive impairments associated with early Parkinson’s disease. Neurology, 1989, 39, 557–561)]. In the work reported here, we consider the possible mechanisms that might underlie this impairment. 28 PD patients and 28 controls were given a two-part test of recognition memory for words and faces, and two perceptual tests to measure their configural and componential processing ability. We found that PD patients were significantly worse than controls on the recognition memory test for faces, but not when the stimuli were words. In addition, PD patients were significantly impaired relative to controls on the closure test (FCT) used to measure configural processing, but there was no difference between the two groups on a test of componential processing ability. Multiple regression analyses revealed that even after accounting for the influence of age, intelligence and level of depression, configural processing ability was the important predictor of unfamiliar face recognition memory in Parkinson’s disease. There was no effect of Parkinson’s disease specific variables on either face recognition or FCT performance. In addition, some recently diagnosed patients were poor at face recognition. It is suggested that face configuration skills may be affected very early in the course of Parkinson’s disease, and that this may be connected to the fact that considerable nigrostriatal degeneration and alteration in brain neurotransmitter levels occur before the clinical symptoms of PD appear.

Recognition Memory for Faces: Reliability and Validity of the Warrington Recognition Memory Test (RMT) in a Neurological Sample

In response to critiques regarding the psychometric limitations of the Warrington Recognition Memory Test for faces (RMT-F), the current study was conducted to examine the test-retest reliability and validity of the measure in a neurological sample. Forty adult outpatients, ages 35–81, were administered the RMT-F as part of their diagnostic exam. A second evaluation was conducted after an average interval of 7 months (range = 2–20 months). Results yielded a Pearson reliability coefficient of 0.81 (p < .001), indicating a clinically satisfactory index of stability. Correlations with other measures were conducted to examine convergent and divergent validity. Results indicate that the facial component of the RMT has adequate reliability for patients with established neurological disease, shows moderate correlations with other measures of complex visuospatial function, and shows no significant correlation with measures of verbal reasoning, visual problem-solving, or verbal fluency. These findings provide additional support for the clinical efficacy of this instrument for use in a diverse neurological patient sample.

Cognitive features of psychotic states arising in late life (late paraphrenia).

The cognitive performance of 47 elderly psychotic patients with onset of symptoms in late life (late paraphrenia) was compared to that of 33 controls matched for age, sex, ethnic origin, number of years of education, and pre-morbid IQ as measured by the NART. Neuropsychological indices of general cognitive functioning (MMSE, CAMCOG, WAIS-R verbal and performance scores) showed that patients were performing the tasks at a significantly lower level than controls. Patients also showed a trend to have a lower span capacity than controls, particularly at the spatial span subtest. There was no obvious impairment of learning as measured by the digit and spatial recurring span tasks nor of simultaneous matching-to-sample ability. However, patients' performance on a delayed-matching-to-sample procedure was significantly worse than that of controls. In addition, patients performed worse than controls on the Recognition Memory Test for Faces, but not for Words. Finally, the performance of patients on tests assessing executive functioning (Verbal Fluency Test, Computerized Extra and Intra-Dimensional Shift Task, Computerized Spatial Working Memory Task, and Computerized Tower of London Task) was consistently worse than that of controls. These results suggest that psychotic states arising in late life are predominantly associated with a decline on measures of general cognitive ability and executive functioning. The neuropsychological meaning of these findings is discussed in the light of cognitive models of psychotic symptoms, as well as of schizophrenia and dementia research. We concluded that the lack of a clear pattern of impairment among these patients may be the result of their clinical and cognitive diversity.

Affect judgement and facial recognition memory in schizophrenia.

Two experiments are described in which the performance of schizophrenic subjects was investigated, using tests of affect judgement and recognition memory for faces (Warrington), words, and semi-abstract patterns. Schizophrenic subjects were impaired in their ability to describe the emotional states portrayed by actors and presented on video and were more likely to comment on the physical description of the actor or to fail to comment on the emotion at all. Performance on the Warrington Recognition Memory Test for faces suggests a marked impairment in schizophrenia, although impaired performance on recognition memory tests for words and patterns indicates that this abnormality may not be specific for faces.