Recognition Failure Of Recallable Words Research Articles

The TECO theory and lawful dependency in successive episodic memory tests.

A large number of experiments in successive tests of episodic memory have focused on an experimental paradigm called recognition failure of recallable words. In this paradigm, a cued recall test follows a recognition test. Large amounts of data have revealed a lawful moderate dependence between recognition and cued recall. TECO (Sikström, 1996b), a general connectionist theory of memory, has been applied for the phenomenon of recognition failure. This paper makes a strong claim that all possible pairwise combinations of successive tests between recognition, cued recognition, cued recall, and free recall follow a lawful relationship. The quantitative degree of the dependency predicted between these tests can be summarized in one function. Four experiments were conducted to test this claim. In line with the predictions, the results show that all pairwise combinations of these tests fit reasonably well with the proposed function. The TECO theory suggests theoretical insights into how recognition and recall may be divided into a recollection component, a familiarity component, and a cue-target integration component.

Item-specific effects in recognition failure: reasons for rejection of the Tulving-Wiseman function.

The present paper addresses the problems of whether recognition failure of recallable words is a function of both recognition and recall, and whether recognition failure is restricted to a small and specifiable subset of study items. A meta-analysis of the Nilsson-Gardiner database (Nilsson & Gardiner, 1993) showed that recognition given recall was positively correlated with recognition and negatively correlated with recall. Two new experiments are reported, the first one using 48 word pairs for which recognition failure was found in previous studies. An item analysis of the data demonstrated that recognition failure occurred primarily with noun-adjective pairs. The second experiment compared Norwegian-American and American-Norwegian name pairs. Wide deviation from the Tulving-Wiseman function (Tulving & Wiseman, 1975) was observed for the latter condition. In both conditions, recognition failure occurred with only the items for which the beginnings of names shared three or more letters. It is concluded that recognition failure occurs when there exists a relationship between the members of an A-B pairs that is independent of their pairing in the study context. The Tulving-Wiseman function is the result of collapsing across items in the analysis of previous studies.

The role of integration in recognition failure and action memory.

In three experiments, we studied memory for action events with respect to exceptions from the Tulving-Wiseman function demonstrated in experiments on recognition failure of recallable words. In Experiment 1, we examined exceptions of poor integration in a regular recognition failure condition (i.e., recognition of targets without contextual cues, followed by recall of targets in the presence of contextual cues). In Experiment 2, we examined exceptions of cue overlap in which subjects also had access to the information of contextual cues at recognition test. In Experiment 3, we attempted to equate the levels of recognition across the action and verbal encoding. In addition, the cue overlap and no-cue overlap conditions were studied in a within-subjects design. Results from the three experiments indicated that encoding enactment (episodic integration) and conceptual integration (semantic integration) are related to each other. As a consequence of this relationship, there is a larger independence between recognition and recall of well-integrated items with encoding enactment. On the other hand, for the poorly integrated items without encoding enactment, there is a larger dependence between recognition and recall. Even in the cue overlap condition, where there is a case of large dependence between recognition and recall, the same pattern of data was observed. The results are discussed in terms of an episodic integration view of encoding enactment.

The TECO Connectionist Theory of Recognition Failure

Data from experiments on the phenomenon of recognition failure of recallable words show moderate dependence between recognition and recall. TECO, a connectionist theory, is proposed to account for the phenomenon. Cued recall is assumed to be cued with the cue word and the event. Recognition is assumed to be cued with the event and the copy cue. Moderate dependence is predicted because recall and recognition are cued with the event. The large degree of independence is predicted because recognition lacks the word cue and recall lacks the copy cue. TECO predicts exceptions from the regularity of independence when recognition is cued and recall is uncued. Dependency increases when both tests are cued with the cue word and when recall is uncued. Functions for the various levels of cue information are derived. A comparison with experimental data shows a better fit for the TECO theory than for the Tulving-Wiseman function, especially for the cued recognition and free recall exceptions.

Recognition failure of recallable words: problems of mathematical constraint and dependence

The graph space of P(RN|RL) vs. P(RN), probabilities of recognition given recall and overall recognition, is the setting for the Tulving‐Wiseman (TW) function of recognition failure research. According to Hintzman (1991, 1992), the moderate scatter of data points about the TW curve is an artefactual regularity caused by a mathematical constraint when P(RN) < P(RL). However, both constrained and unconstrained (when P(RN) ≥P(RL)) points conform equally well to the TW function, consistent with the unobserved fact that the location of both kinds of points is determined by the same mathematical rule. Hintzman's claim that there is no regularity in the data plot when P(RN) < P(RL) other than that produced by the constraint is not supported by this study. He based his claim on an incorrect use of the measure of dependence (association) called gamma. The graph space corresponding to gamma is that of P(RN|RL) vs. P(RN|nRL), as shown by using the Bayes function (Bayes' theorem). The margin‐free measure gamma is a function of two thetas, theta being a margin‐sensitive measure of dependence that is the parameter of the Bayes function. The variance of gamma reflects the fact that it is compounded of the theta variances, so a margin‐free measure is obtained at the expense of greater variability.

Recognition-failure constraints and the average maximum.

The Tulving-Wiseman function of recognition failure of recallable words is defined by the relation between the conditional probability of recognition given recall, P(Rn/Rc), and the probability of recognition, P(Rn). Hintzman (1993) proposed a distinction between algebraic maximum and average maximum values of P(Rn/Rc) to support his earlier claims (Hintzman, 1992) that the Tulving-Wiseman function is a mathematical artifact. This article shows that the distinction depends on a crucial assumption of Hintzman's argument that is unjustified on both empirical and rational grounds

Recognition failure of recallable words: Exception due to poor integration

The phenomenon of recognition failure of recallable words shows a remarkable regularity across a wide variety of experimental conditions. A quadratric function, referred to as the Tulving‐Wiseman function, summarizes this regularity. A few cases of deviation from this function have been identified and classified into two categories of exceptions to this function. An experiment was designed to deal with one of these categories, namely the exception that occurs because of poor integration between cue and target information of studied word pairs. An index based on confidence ratings of recall responses was developed to assess variability in integration. Poor integration was demonstrated especially for one presentation of low associative word pairs, and significant deviations from the function was obtained for this condition. Hintzman's (1991, 1992) hypothesis about mathematical constraints of the Tulving‐Wiseman function was discussed and refuted. Finally, an interpretation of negative deviations from the Tulving‐Wiseman function was proposed.

Exceptions to recognition failure as a function of the encoded association between cue and target

The relation of the recognition failure of recallable words to overall recognition rates is largely invariant across conditions that influence both recall and recognition separately. In two experiments, the influence of the integration of the members of A-B word pairs on this relation was investigated. In Experiment 1, it was found that deviations of observed recognition failure from predictions of the Tulving-Wiseman function (Tulving & Wiseman, 1975) were produced by shallow, nonsemantic encoding. In Experiment 2, the association of category-to-instance pairs was varied. It was found that weak associates caused larger deviations of observed recognition failure from predicted recognition failure than did strong associates. Such results suggest that a strongly encoded association between cue and target elements of A-B pairs is a necessary condition for the adherence of data to the Tulving-Wiseman function. The implications of these findings for general models of memory are discussed.

Integration and cue overlap in recognition failure of recallable words

A highly systematic relation between the conditional probability of recognition given recall and the overall recognition hit rate has been demonstrated in a wide variety of experiments. A function describing this relationship was developed by Tulving & Wiseman (1975). Exceptions to this function have, in retrospect, been interpreted in terms of (a) a low integration between cue and target items, or (b) a high cue overlap between the two tests involved: recognition and recall. The experiment reported was designed to evaluate the joint and the separate contributions from integration and cue overlap for obtaining conformity with and exception from the Tulving‐Wiseman function. In line with the predictions made, the results showed that these two factors in combination can account for data that fit the function and for exceptions above the function. In relative terms, the contribution from integration was somewhat more pronounced than that from cue overlap.

Recognition failure of recallable words: free and cued recall compared

The experiment reported was conducted with the purpose of studying whether the phenomenon of recognition failure of recallable words would hold for a paradigm which involves a free recall test rather than a cued recall test used in previous research. The 3×2 design used comprised two between‐subjects factors: the subjects were instructed that a recognition test, a cued recall test, or a free recall test would follow the study trial, but the actual test sequence given was recognition followed by cued recall, or recognition followed by free recall. The results demonstrate that cases of recognition failure of recallable words do occur in all six conditions, but the amount of recognition failure for the recognition‐free recall test sequence was less than that predicted from the Tulving & Wiseman (1975) function. In line with previous research the data for the recognition‐cued recall test sequence showed the amount of recognition failure that was predicted by this function.

Recognition failure of recallable unique names: Evidence for an empirical law of memory and learning.

An experiment is described in which subjects (N = 106) studied unique names of famous individuals, such as ISAAC NEWTON and GEORGE WASHINGTON, and unique geographic names, such as TORONTO and STOCKHOLM, in the context of descriptive phrases. In a subsequent recognition test of the names in the absence of their study context, subjects failed to recognize many names that they could recall in the presence of the study context. These results (a) demonstrate the generality of the phenomenon of recognition failure of recallable words, (b) limit Muter's (1984) claim that unique names of famous people constitute an exception to the Tulving-Wiseman (1975) function, and (c) provide further support for an empirical law concerning the relation between recognition and recall.

Recognition failure of categorized words.

Previous research has demonstrated that the phenomenon of recognition failure of recallable words does not hold for categorized word pairs (e.g.,flower-ROSE). We tested the hypothesis that such an exceptional finding is attributable to the use of homogeneous lists that create a situation in which the functional recall cues do not contain any information not already contained in the recognition cues. In three experiments in which categorized word pairs were used, but whose design ruled out the invariant informational overlap between recognition and recall cues, recognition failure was found to the extent expected by Tulving and Wiseman’s (1975) function. These results add to the evidence that the relation between recognition and cued recall in recognition-failure experiments is largely invariant over many otherwise relevant variables that affect recognition and recall.

Recognition and recall of words with a single meaning.

Twenty-four subjects were tested for recognition of famous surnames and then were tested for cued recall of the same surnames. For common names (e.g., Cooper), the usual pattern of recognition failure of recallable words (Tulving & Wiseman, 1975) was found. For unique, single-node names (e.g., Kierkegaard), virtually no recognition failure (1.4%) of recallable words was obtained. These results fit well with generation-recognition theory.

Exceptions to recognition failure of recallable words

Results of many experiments that conform with the recognition failure paradigm have yielded a systematic relation between the proportion of all words that are recognized and the proportion of recalled words that are recognized. In two experiments described here, the proportion of recalled words recognized was found to be much higher than expected on the basis of this relation when lists composed of pairs of abstract words or digit—word pairs were presented under typical study conditions of the paradigm. Under special study conditions, however, it was found that the proportion of recalled words that are recognized approximated more closely to expected values. Thus, exceptions to the general pattern of results were obtained and, more important, shown to depend primarily on encoding operations rather than on properties of materials as such. Theoretical explanations of recognition failure were evaluated with respect to their ability to account for these exceptions, and it was concluded that no theory can adequately explain them.

Some Constraints on the Generality and Interpretation of the Recognition Failure of Recallable Words

Three experiments explored the recognition failure of recallable words in the recognition-recall paradigm. Experiment I examined the effect of different degrees of associative strength between the cue and target. High associative strength resulted in the most recognition failure, with the amount being greater than that predicted by the Tulving-Wiseman equation. Experiments II and III investigated the possibility that the recognition-recall testing order produces artifactual recognition failure of recallable words. Substantial recognition failure and recall occurred even when the subjects did not have a prior study trial on the target words. This implies that some indeterminate amount of recognition failure in the recognition-recall paradigm is an artifact.

Recognition failure of recallable words and recognizable words.

Three experiments are reported introducing variations in testing mode and cuing context into the general procedures used to demonstrate recognition failure of recallable words. Recognition failure of recognizable words can be demonstrated when a cued recognition test replaces the cued recall test in these general procedures. Also, recall failure of recallable words can be demonstrated if an uncued recall test replaces the initial uncued recognition test. If the initial recognition test involves cued recognition, then both the recognition failure of recallable words and the recognition failure of recognizable words are attenuated. Recognition failure of recognizable words was also present when distractors were not used in recognition testing. It was concluded that recognition-failure phenomena represent a special class of context effects; that is, they simply result from removing original study cues from one testing context and restoring them in a second testing context. It was suggested that theories of memory that recognize that memory performance may be sensitive to testing context are not contraindicated by the demonstration of recognition failure of recallable words.

Recognition failure of recallable words and recognizable words.

Recognition failure of recallable words and recognizable words.

More on recognition failure of recallable words: Implications for generation–recognition models.

More on recognition failure of recallable words: Implications for generation–recognition models.

More on recognition failure of recallable words: Implications for generation-recognition models.

More on recognition failure of recallable words: Implications for generation-recognition models.

Recognition failure of recallable words in semantic memory

In an experiment in which there was no study phase, 54 subjects were tested for recognition of famous surnames and then were tested for cued recall of the same surnames. Subjects failed to recognize 53.4% of names that they subsequently recalled. Recall was significantly higher than recognition. The relationship between overall recognition rate and recognition rate of recallable words closely resembled that reported by Tulving and Wiseman (1975) for episodic memory experiments. The present data therefore extend the generality of this relationship, and of the principle that the probability of retrieval from memory depends critically on the cues provided. It is argued that the similarity between results for episodic memory experiments and the present semantic memory experiment can be more parsimoniously accommodated by tagging theory than by episodic theory.