Reclamation Bond Research Articles

Post-mined reclamation condition assessment by Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

Post-mined reclamation is an essential phase in coal mining operations, ensuring that the ex-mining area can function again according to its intended purpose in the future. This study aimed to elucidate the differences in planting years of post-mined reclamation at a coal mine in the Paringin area, South Kalimantan, Indonesia, and compared them to undisturbed areas for the years 2003 and 2023. NDVI was used for land cover analysis based on the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resource Regulation, and the ultimate criterion for 100% success in post-mined reclamation is vegetation canopy coverage. The NDVI results showed an improvement in NDVI values for the post-mined reclamation area from 2003 to 2023, indicating an improvement in land cover due to the revegetation process. In 2023, the NDVI results of the post-mined reclamation for eight and twenty years of tree planting showed NDVI values of 0.6-0.7 (moderate vegetation). However, the results of field observations of the twenty-year post-mined reclamation tree condition indicate the non-survival of fast-growing tree species, such as Albizia chinensis. The composition of fast-growing and local tree species, with a minimum proportion of 60:40, and systematic tree distribution across the post-mined reclamation area are required to maintain canopy coverage of the post-mined reclamation area in the long term. Fast-growing tree species, as pioneers, have short to medium life periods. Therefore, the ultimate criterion for 100% success in post-mined reclamation for canopy coverage should be based on local tree species, serving as the basis for releasing the reclamation bond.

Use of lidar for monitoring vegetation growth dynamics in reclaimed mine lands in Kentucky

Surface coal mining in the Appalachian region has led to a significant forest disturbance over time. Evaluating the effectiveness of current reclamation practices in promoting vegetation growth on reclaimed mine sites is a key to understanding how much vegetation has changed in those sites since reclamation. This study employed statewide airborne lidar data to assess changes in lidar vegetation structural metrics on reclaimed mine lands in the Lower Levisa Watershed of Eastern Kentucky between 2011 and 2019 and compare vegetation growth at various reclaimed sites reclaimed in different decades. Eighteen inactive surface mines were selected for the study and categorized into four groups based on the release of their reclamation bonds in different decades. Lidar point cloud data were processed in ArcGIS Pro using filtering and segmentation algorithms to calculate various vegetation attributes from the point clouds, including maximum vegetation height (Hmax), mean height (Hmean), standard deviation of height (HSD), canopy cover (CC), and height percentiles (10, 50 and 75), which were represented as lidar metrics. The process of generating the lidar metrics involved creating Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and Digital Surface Models (DSMs), calculating Canopy Height Models (CHMs), creating LAS height metrics and generating point statistics rasters to derive these metrics. Change maps for each metric were visually assessed over time, and circular plots with a radius of 12 m were established within each site for further statistical analysis. Significant changes in lidar vegetation metrics were observed between 2011 and 2019 with significant differences among sites reclaimed at different time periods. There was an overall increase in Hmean from 2011 to 2019, with values ranging from 2.4 to 3.8 m. Sites reclaimed in the 1980s experienced an average decrease in canopy cover of −0.5%, while those from the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s demonstrated increases of 4.9%, 10.1%, and 18.1%, respectively, suggesting that canopy growth rates are higher in younger sites compared to older ones. Vertical variability of the vegetation also increased over time, as indicated by increasing HSD values. Utilizing statewide airborne lidar data allowed for a comprehensive and detailed assessment of vegetation dynamics on reclaimed mine lands. The findings of this study serve as a foundation for future research endeavors focused on vegetation recovery assessment and success in reclaimed mine lands using lidar data.

Why don't environmental bonds fully cover reclamation costs?

Governments often require that extractive industry firms post environmental bonds as financial assurance to cover eventual reclamation liabilities. Such bond requirements frequently do not fully cover the reclamation cost. We show that a revenue-maximizing government may reasonably require a bond amount smaller than the full reclamation cost. This is because large bonds may discourage the extractive activities, diminishing fiscal income from project rents that could more than offset the decreased reclamation liability falling on the government. The selected bonding rate largely depends on the regulator's estimation of the elasticity of exit in response to bonding. Western Australia's recent refund of mining reclamation bonds to strong balance sheet firms, the US Bureau of Land Management's (BLM) historical concern over exit of oil and gas operators on onshore federal lands in response to bonding requirements and willingness to accept for its own account reclamation risks associated with incomplete bonding, and Texas's requirement for full-cost onshore oil and gas reclamation bonding are shown to all be consistent with this calculus.

Improving the understanding of mining licensing owners on paying reclamation bond in West Nusa Tenggara Province

Mining activities have a considerable effect on the environment. One of the efforts made by the Government is to require mining companies to provide Reclamation Bonds. This Insurance is a total of funds paid by mining companies to the Regional Government as an Insurance for Mining Licensing Owners to reclaim the ex-mining land produced. Based on Article 95 of Law Number 4 of 2009, one of the obligations of Mining Licensing Owners is to apply the rules of proper mining techniques. This research was conducted in West Nusa Tenggara (NTB) Province using interview and documentation methods from the Energy and Mineral Resources Office of West Nusa Tenggara Province. The data used are data of Mining Licensing Owners and data of owners that submitting reclamation insurance. The results of this study are known to 306 Licensing in NTB Province, 127 of which have made reclamation bond payments, while 179 licensing have not made payment. Therefor, as many as 41.5% of licensing owners have had the awareness to pay reclamation bonds. Increasing supervision and administrative sanctions are two measures that can be applied to increase the awareness of Mining Licensing Owners who have not paid reclamation insurance.

Non-renewable resource extraction under financial incentives to reduce and reverse stock pollution

This paper examines the impacts of three types of financial incentives on non-renewable resource extraction that produces reversible stock pollution. A particular emphasis is the timing of remediation. We show that traditional standards-based regulation incentivizes operators to delay remediation. A policy that instead requires the operator to pay ongoing damages from the pollution stock via a Pigouvian stock tax is socially optimal and provides the operator with the correct incentives to remediate the pollution stock. A Pigouvian pollution flow tax, which has been a popular recommendation in the stock pollution literature, does not generate these remediation incentives. Nor do financial assurances, also known as reclamation bonds. The financial incentives embodied in mine regulatory reform in the United States, China and Western Australia have no explicit intention of implementing a Pigouvian stock tax. They are therefore unlikely to incentivize optimally timed remediation by the firm, even though the policy reforms have been driven by a recognition that past standards-based policies were ineffective at incentivizing timely remediation.

Surface coal mine permit application for successful reclamation, semi-arid shortgrass prairie (Wyoming, USA)

Approximately 40% of USA coal originates in an ecologically sensitive area of semi-arid shortgrass prairie in Wyoming. Before a surface coal mine can begin operation in the USA, it must secure a mining permit and comply with regulations and performance standards under the USA Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA), other federal environmental acts, and state programs. The Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality (WDEQ)/Land Quality Division (LQD) administers Wyoming’s coal regulatory program. The permit application and bonding process for the largest surface coal mine permit in the USA, North Antelope Rochelle Mine (NARM) located in short grassland prairie in the northeast Wyoming, is discussed. The permit application process begins with the collection of baseline environmental data that characterizes premining conditions of the permit area. The permit application includes adjudication information, baseline information, mine and operation plans, and reclamation plans. Fulfillment of permit commitments and requirements of rules and regulations are inspected monthly by the LQD’s representative in the field. Before a mine permit is issued, the mine operator must submit a reclamation bond to secure the performance of reclamation obligations that is later revised annually. In Wyoming, four reclamation bond release phases indicate the completion of various stages of the reclamatikon process. NARM’s specific bond release verification cirteria, performance standards, and field verificatoins of bond release phases are discussed. The Bond Release Geodatabase (a GIS/GPS approach) was developed for this mine to monitor progress in meeting criteria and performance standards for incremental bond release. The Bond Release Geodatabase significantly reduces the time needed to track bond release progress, reach agreement between operator and regulator, and improve the state inspector’s ability to assess reclamation adequacy and progress.

Disparate impacts of coal mining and reclamation concerns for West Virginia and central Appalachia

The international coal mining industry has experienced serious recent downturns, particularly in the electricity generating market, with steady declines projected into the future. In the United States, increased production from the natural gas sector has made coal-fired power production less competitive, and natural gas power plants are replacing aging coal-fired plants. As such, many of the larger coal companies are in or have recently been in bankruptcy, leaving all coal mining states in the United States at risk for liabilities from abandoned unreclaimed coal mines. Because of the various laws and regulations surrounding the permitting of coal mines, Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia employ some form of alternative bonding systems, and Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, New Mexico, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wyoming employ self-bonding, which allows a coal operator to reduce its secured bond. These alternative bonding systems do not contemplate the risk of a large-scale industry downturn, leaving states at risk for hundreds of millions of dollars of liabilities to reclaim abandoned coal mines and protect the environment and its residents.We examined the reclamation bonds for all coal mines in West Virginia and found that West Virginia faces significant gaps between counties and watershed for the amount of the secured funding for site-specific reclamation. Significant disparities exist such that some residents are much more impacted by the amount of coal mining, as well as the amount of site-specific bonding. We also found that the areas most impacted by the amount of coal mining and reduced site-specific bonding are in the areas with the worst health outcomes. This is a concern for all regions with all types of extractive industries: how to maximize industry while protecting the environment and its residents. Moving forward, states should reconfigure bonding systems to alleviate these risks and burdens on its citizens to prepare for continued declines within the coal industry.

Comparison of international mine reclamation bonding systems with recommendations for China

Mine reclamation bonds are used in countries with mineral mining to ensure that reclamation of the mined area is completed. The United States, Canada, and Australia are countries with established mine reclamation bond programs, with the United States coal system having been in place since 1977. China implemented a bonding system in 1998 and by 2013 all 31 provinces had established a system. An effective bonding system must be conditioned on fair and enforceable nationwide reclamation standard, stimulate companies to conduct reclamation by forming economic incentives rather than penalties that become a liability, and allow for full public participation. Based on these principles, this paper compares seven important factors for a successful reclamation bonding system: laws and regulations, administrative authority, bond types, bond size, calculation method, bond release, and public participation. The results show variation in policies and procedures for bonding among countries. Using principles and policies primarily from the United States, China should establish a national reclamation bonding system with legislation that forms a national authority to oversee and enforce reclamation standards and bond requirements. In addition, China can expand bond financial types and strategies, set the size of reclamation bonds at the level of a third-party reclamation cost, and set unified standards for calculation. Phased bond release should be established with specific reclamation criteria for each phase of release. Finally, bonding regulations should clearly identify opportunities for full public participation in the process.

Stakeholders Participation and Sustainability of Corporate Social Responsibility Programmes in Ghana: A Study of AngloGold Ashanti Mine in Obuasi

<p class="1Body">Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has gained tremendous attention in the policy implementation of some organizations. National governments and societies have developed keen interest in the operations of organizations under this jurisdiction. Therefore, companies may not only be profit oriented but would seek to enhance the welfare of the people as they operate in a more sustainable way without harming the environment. It is on this premise that this article attempts to assess stakeholder participation and sustainability of corporate social responsibility programmes implemented by AngloGold Ashanti in Obuasi, Ghana.</p><p class="1Body">CSR programmes initiated by AGA-Obuasi are categorized into four main areas<strong>:</strong> Community Health and Malaria Control Programme, Social Infrastructure, Education and Sports as well as Art, Culture & Heritage programmes (AngloGold Ashanti, 2013). Activities of the mines affect Obuasi and their allocated unit areas environmentally, socially, economically and culturally and hence, the company is not only profit oriented but has assumed responsibility of developing the community through CSR and the reclamation bond or process.</p><p class="1Body">CSR programmes are undertaken voluntarily by the mine corporation to facilitate its operations. CSR policies, plans, program and projects are broad and hence, the study was conducted mainly to assess stakeholder participation and sustainability. The relevant stakeholders in various communities in the AGA-Obuasi operational area were involved in the formulation and implementation of CSR programmes through consultative committee meetings, community/public meetings in various allocated communities. Program were formulated and implemented based on request from host communities.</p>

English

The use of financial institutions and legislation are some of the regulatory mechanisms for ensuring an effective Environmental Financial Assurance (EFA) implementation. Third party involvement in regulation could mitigate regulatory implementation inefficiency in developing countries. This research uses Ghana as a case study to examine the effectiveness of these two regulatory mechanisms in Ghana’s EFA policy implementation. The influence of financial institutions in environmental policy could be seen in 3 folds: as lenders, insurers and investors. Transnational companies (TNCs) are sometimes unwilling to accept regulatory reforms in developing countries because it appears they can get away with it. The knowledge that contractual agreements and legal institutions are weak also seems to allow TNCs to take advantage of the situation and hardly comply fully with the environmental regulations in developing countries.     Key words: Environmental financial assurance, rule of law, financial institutions, developing countries,  transnational companies, mining reclamation bonds. 

English

The high cost and environmental risks associated with non-renewable energy sources has caused an increased development of renewable biofuels. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), a warm-season perennial grass, has been investigated extensively as a source of biofuel feedstock due to its high biomass production on marginal soils. Additionally, the plant's high tolerance to adverse growing conditions and its ability to provide habitat for wildlife makes it a widely used species for conservation cover. West Virginia contains vast expanses of reclaimed surface mine lands and could potentially benefit from the production of switchgrass as a biofuel feedstock. Furthermore, switchgrass production could satisfy Surface Mining Reclamation and Control Act of 1977 (SMCRA) requirements for reclamation bond release to mine operators. This study examined yield of switchgrass stands grown on reclaimed surface mines during the third and fourth years of production. Three varieties were tested on two mine sites to determine which produces the highest yields on reclaimed surface mines in West Virginia. The Hamphire Hill mine site which was reclaimed in the early 1990s using top soil and treated municipal sludge consistently had the highest yields of the two sites (2,566 kg/ha averaged across three years). The other mine site, Hobet 21, was prepared using crushed, unweathered sandstone as the soil material, and yields of switchgrass were 975 kg/ha averaged over three years. Cave-in-Rock variety produced more biomass than the other two varieties, Shawnee and Carthage. A second study to determine optimal nitrogen rates for switchgrass established on newly reclaimed surface mines was launched in June 2011 on two new surface mine sites. Both sites were seeded at a rate of 11.2 kg pure live seed (PLS) ac -1 on replicated treatments of 0, 33.6 and 67.0 kg N ha -1 . Results showed that a fertilizer treatment of 33.6 kg ha -1 and 67.0 kg ha -1 at seeding produced a higher yield compared to yields from plots with no fertilizer and the plants looked more vigorous and provided greater ground cover. Plots fertilized with 0, 33.6, and 67.0 kg ha -1 produced average yields of 67, 367 and 777 kg ha -1 , respectively. No significant difference was found between the high and low N applications.

English

All coal mines must provide a reclamation performance bond sufficient to cover the cost of reclaiming the mine as per the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) of 1977. The Wyoming Coal Program has two types of bonds: an Area Bond (backfilling and grading) and an Incremental Bond. The Incremental Bond includes Phase 1 Partial Release (final grading and soil replacement), Phase 2 Partial Release (vegetation establishment commensurate with the seed mix), and Phase 3 Full Release (all requirements have been met). As of October 2010, approximately 29 690 ha have been released from bond (various phases of Area and Incremental Bond) from 35 coal mines in Wyoming that accounted for 17% of total permitted acreage and 46% of total disturbed acreage. Approximately $238 318 400 has been paid (10.7% of total) through the bond release process compared to $2 223 000 000 of the total bond currently held by the State for all coal mines. The average cost per ha held for Area Bond, Phase 1, Phase 2, and Phase 3 Incremental Bond was $8 069 ($3 267 per acre). Various phases of bond release require verification of performance standards in the field (e.g., backfilling, topsoil replacement, drainage construction, revegetation, etc.). Keeping track of all of these verifications on hundreds of parcels or reclaimed land represents a challenge for the regulatory agency, especially for large mines. As a result of these challenges, a Bond Release geodatabase was developed for the North Antelope Rochelle Mine (NARM) in Wyoming. This geodatabase was the first spatially supported database developed in Wyoming for reclamation bond release processing purposes for mined lands. The geodatabase was designed to support the tracking of areas which have achieved backfill verification and have satisfied performance standards in support of incremental bond release. Selected compliance features used to support the approval of incremental bond release during the verification process include: topsoil depth, surface stability, and wildlife habitat features. These features were monitored and entered into the geodatabase by LQD personnel during inspections using a Global Position System (GPS) enabled data collector.

Economic-theory-based analysis of the collection standard of mine land reclamation bond and its calculation approach

The collection standard of mine land reclamation bond based on the 'rational economic man' theory is analyzed. There are three relations between the collection standard of the bond and the expected reclamation cost. Under each of the three relations, the choices and welfare levels of the regulatory authorities and the mining enterprises are analyzed respectively. It is indicated that the proper amount of the bond should equal to the reclamation cost. There are two approaches to calculate reclamation cost. One is based on ecosystem service value. The other is based on reclamation fee. The former is difficult to operate in practice for the result derived by this method has much difference from the payment ability of the mining enterprises. By comparison, it is easy to operate in practice to calculate reclamation cost through the calculation of the total sum of engineering reclamation fee, biological reclamation fee and other reclamation fee. Therefore, the approach of calculating reclamation cost based on reclamation fee should be adopted to calculate the amount of the bond the mine enterprises should submit.

English

In the late 1980s, two coal gasification concepts were tested at a 15- acre site in the Hanna Basin of south-central Wyoming. Both tests were conducted in the Hanna No. 1 Coal Seam, which is about 30 feet thick and 365 feet below surface at this site. Approximately 4500 tons and 11,300 tons of coal were burned in the two tests, respectively. The Land Quality Division (LQD) of the Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality (WDEQ) issued Research and Development License No. 15 (RD15) to Stearns Catalytic Corporation (now Washington Group International, Inc.) for the tests. Per the license requirements, ground water restoration and surface reclamation were necessary after the tests. Because of the efficiency of the burns and the effectiveness of venting and flushing the burn cavities after each test, ground water restoration was completed in 1989. Once ground water restoration was deemed complete, the 30+ wells were abandoned and surface reclamation began. The reported seed mix included Wheatgrass (western, thickspike, and slender), Indian Ricegrass, Fourwing Saltbush, and Big Sagebrush. In addition, Big Sagebrush seedlings were also planted. Surface reclamation was completed in 1993, with limited repair work (primarily weed control) in subsequent years. The LQD released the reclamation bond and terminated the license in late 2005. Even though this site was tiny in comparison with most in situ noncoal mines and traditional coal mines, it provides a microcosm of reclamation issues, including: drought impacts; selection of areas for evaluation of reclaimed vegetation; and comparison of species planted with species expressed. It also provides information specific to reclamation issues at in situ mining projects, such as extent of ground water contamination, measurement of revegetation success at sites with multiple, relatively small areas of disturbance, and soil sampling for water treatment impacts. The site was one of the first evaluated for bond release under Category 5 of the LQD Coal Rules.

English

No attempt has ever been made to track the long term progress of reforested mine sites in Indiana following reclamation bond release. The purpose of this survey was to determine how well reforested mine sites in Indiana were performing in terms of values and services normally ascribed to native forest and what their future potential might be. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) was the most abundant species on 68% of the surveyed sites and accounted for 45% of all tallied trees and shrubs across all sites. Many black locust stands are currently experiencing decline and dieback caused, in part, by the locust borer. Forty percent of stands approached unmined planted tree height growth rates, while only 27% approached stem diameter growth rates of stands on unmined sites. Most reclaimed mine sites had measured site quality indices below the poorer quality sites in the region's native forests. Overall stocking in the establishment phase of stand development appeared adequate for future commercial timber production on many of the study sites. However, the dominance of black locust stocking in many stands limits their future viability for timber production. Tall fescue and serica lespedeza along with naturally occurring goldenrod were the most common ground covers in surveyed tree plantings. With few exceptions the reclaimed mine sites in this study show very low levels of productivity for forest products and carbon sequestration relative to native forests of this region, even though stocking levels appeared to be adequate. This suggests that the current bond performance measurement of 450 trees/acre bears little relevance to long term forest productivity. The results of this survey should serve as a baseline to determine the extent to which recent and future changes in reclamation methods improve reforestation success while meeting the other mandates of Indiana's mining regulatory program.

Topsoil Depth Effects on Reclaimed Coal Mine and Native Area Vegetation in Northeastern Wyoming

Mandated uniform topsoil replacement may hinder or prevent compliance with reclamation bond release standards such as canopy cover, aboveground production, shrub density, and diversity. This investigation was conducted at a coal mine in northeastern Wyoming in order to evaluate the relationship between variable topsoil replacement depths of 15, 30, and 56 cm and short-term revegetation success. Vegetation variables of total cover, total vegetation canopy cover, total number of species, and average number of species (based on cover sampling) were determined on both reclaimed and 2 native reference areas (Upland Grass and Breaks Grass) during 2000, 2001, and 2002, with aboveground production being measured in 2002. The highest total number of species encountered based on canopy cover and aboveground production sampling was in the 30-cm reclaimed treatment, many of which were desirable seeded and volunteer perennial grasses and forbs. In 2001, total vegetation cover on the 56-cm reclaimed treatment was significantly greater than on the 15-cm treatment. Comparison of the current study area to a 1991 reclaimed site indicated a consistent general pattern of species establishment. Aboveground production was also higher in the current reclaimed area than in the native reference areas, while total cover and total vegetation cover were lower. Shannon–Wiener H′ values, based on absolute total vegetation canopy cover, were greater in the 30-cm reclaimed treatment; however, a majority of diversity indices indicated that the Breaks Grass native reference area was more diverse than either Upland Grass or Reclaimed sites. From observations made at the North Antelope/Rochelle Mine, a mosaic of different topsoil depths, including the shallow 15- and 30-cm depths as well as the mandated 56-cm depth, creates the broadest range of vegetation response under a standard regime of revegetation practices. Thus, the capacity to replace different thickness of topsoil should be a reclamation practice available to mine operators.

Topsoil Depth Effects on Reclaimed Coal Mine and Native Area Vegetation in Northeastern Wyoming

Mandated uniform topsoil replacement may hinder or prevent compliance with reclamation bond release standards such as canopy cover, aboveground production, shrub density, and diversity. This investigation was conducted at a coal mine in northeastern Wyoming in order to evaluate the relationship between variable topsoil replacement depths of 15, 30, and 56 cm and short-term revegetation success. Vegetation variables of total cover, total vegetation canopy cover, total number of species, and average number of species (based on cover sampling) were determined on both reclaimed and 2 native reference areas (Upland Grass and Breaks Grass) during 2000, 2001, and 2002, with aboveground production being measured in 2002. The highest total number of species encountered based on canopy cover and aboveground production sampling was in the 30-cm reclaimed treatment, many of which were desirable seeded and volunteer perennial grasses and forbs. In 2001, total vegetation cover on the 56-cm reclaimed treatment was significantly greater than on the 15-cm treatment. Comparison of the current study area to a 1991 reclaimed site indicated a consistent general pattern of species establishment. Aboveground production was also higher in the current reclaimed area than in the native reference areas, while total cover and total vegetation cover were lower. Shannon-Wiener H9 values, based on absolute total vegetation canopy cover, were greater in the 30-cm reclaimed treatment; however, a majority of diversity indices indicated that the Breaks Grass native reference area was more diverse than either Upland Grass or Reclaimed sites. From observations made at the North Antelope/Rochelle Mine, a mosaic of different topsoil depths, including the shallow 15- and 30-cm depths as well as the mandated 56-cm depth, creates the broadest range of vegetation response under a standard regime of revegetation practices. Thus, the capacity to replace different thickness of topsoil should be a reclamation practice available to mine operators.

English

Many Appalachian drainage networks have been extensively altered by surface mining and reclamation. Mine sites reclaimed after passage of the Surface Mine Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) of 1977, must meet SMCRA Approximate Original Contour (AOC) requirements. However, investigations at three north-central West Virginia study show AOC is far removed from original landscape form and function. Specific drainage transformation varies greatly with reclamation style. Small stream drainage density decreased in all cases, but declines were less where sediment trenches act as low-gradient streams. Many reclaimed slopes lack small streams, relying on groundwater and overland flow to deliver water to larger streams. Thus, many headwater streams in unmined uplands are severed from the rest of the drainage system. Slopes below truncated headwater streams are prone to instability. Groundwater and sheet flow lack capacity to handle moderate- to high-magnitude runoff from intense rainfall. Steep slopes commonly showed significant gully erosion very soon after reclamation and these gullies fore-tell long-lived paths across reclaimed slopes. Most constructed drainage was designed for extreme runoff, and lacks the within a channel cross-sections that promote stability during formative bankfull flows that occur every year or two. Constructed channels are poor matches to natural streams with respect to gradient, sinuosity and bed materials. Oversize channels may not fail during the reclamation bond period, but inevitably most will face sedimentation or lateral erosion problems. Existing reclamation practices inadequately address the important roles of small streams in storm-water conveyance and sediment transport, and virtually eliminate ecological functions critical to the biological viability of all streams throughout a watershed. Long-term stability of reclaimed slopes and ecological sustainability of streams will require designs that accommodate both moderate bankfull flows and large infrequent floods.

Spoken but not Heard: The promise of the precautionary principle for natural resource development

Too often, mining developments provide short-term jobs and taxes, and long-term environmental and community degradation. The 'precautionary principle', as practised by the European Union and increasingly by other nations, may provide an opportunity for local communities and others who bear the brunt of mining to employ a cautionary approach to mine permitting. Using the case of the Zortman-Landusky gold mine in Montana, the article illustrates how the precautionary principle might have precluded the tremendous losses suffered by the Fort Belknap residents who live near the now abandoned mine. The Native Americans and other protestors against the mine were correct in their worries about mine drainage affecting their watercourses and the precautionary principle might have limited mine development. The case also illustrates that economic data on mining companies need to go well beyond simple reclamation bond capability in order to avoid bankruptcy resulting in the neighbours and the government having to pay for clean-up.

Spoken but not Heard: the promise of the precautionary principle for natural resource development

Too often, mining developments provide short-term jobs and taxes, and long-term environmental and community degradation. The 'precautionary principle', as practised by the European Union and increasingly by other nations, may provide an opportunity for local communities and others who bear the brunt of mining to employ a cautionary approach to mine permitting. Using the case of the Zortman-Landusky gold mine in Montana, the article illustrates how the precautionary principle might have precluded the tremendous losses suffered by the Fort Belknap residents who live near the now abandoned mine. The Native Americans and other protestors against the mine were correct in their worries about mine drainage affecting their watercourses and the precautionary principle might have limited mine development. The case also illustrates that economic data on mining companies need to go well beyond simple reclamation bond capability in order to avoid bankruptcy resulting in the neighbours and the government having to pay ...