Reclaimed Mine Sites Research Articles

Identification and Characterization of Reclaimed and Underclaimed Mine Features Using Lidar and Temporal Remote Sensing Methods within the Coastal Plain Uranium Mining Region of Texas

We developed a spatiotemporal mapping approach utilizing multiple techniques for distinguishing and mapping known reclaimed mine sites from “unreclaimed” mine sites in a historic uranium mining district along the South Texas Coastal Plains. Lidar laser scanning penetrates the vegetation canopy to expose anthropogenic modifications to the landscape. The Lidar analysis (bare earth elevation surface, slope, topographic contours, topographic textures, and overland-flow hydrography) revealed mine features. Visual interpretation of Landsat imagery and time-series analysis augmented the Lidar analysis revealing the temporal life cycle of mining. The combination of bare earth texture with time-lapse and time-series analyses revealed areas of disturbance for reclaimed mines. The spatiotemporal mapping approach proved to be most useful in identifying and characterizing the known mine pit and pile features, reclamation status, and areas of disturbance due to mining. Two mine waste volume estimation methods resulted in a 21% difference indicating that although the approach helps to map mine features and areas of mining disturbance for the purposes of mine land inventory, additional information is needed to improve the estimation of buried mine waste at reclaimed mine sites.

Regeneration of post‐mining and post‐fire soil function by assessment of tree nutrient status: Evidence from pioneer and N‐fixing species

AbstractNutrient concentrations in the foliage of particular tree species can identify growth‐limiting factors. Therefore, the adaptability and usefulness of certain trees in the afforestation of barren soils after disturbances could be based on nutrient supply and stoichiometry. In this study, we investigated the macronutrient supply to (i.e., nitrogen [N], phosphorus [P], potassium, sulfur, calcium [Ca], and magnesium [Mg]) and C:N:P (carbon:nitrogen:phosphorus) stoichiometry of the foliage of black alder (Alnus glutinosa), common birch (Betula pendula), and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) in two different regeneration scenarios—a reclaimed mine site with primary succession and an afforested post‐fire (PF) site with secondary succession. The control plot was on an undisturbed forest site hosting stands of the studied tree species. The lower concentrations of elements in the post‐mining soils developed from “point zero” were enough to supply the trees with a similar level of nutrition to those in the PF and undisturbed soils. The studied tree species differed in their foliage chemistry and had different effects on the soil properties. The alder and birch foliage contained more nutrients than the pine foliage. In particular, the birch foliage contained the highest concentrations of Ca, Mg, and P, thus enhancing the biogeochemical cycling of these elements. The alder foliage had the highest N concentration, albeit the soil total N contents under this species were not higher than those under birch. Thus, its phytomeliorative effect may have been overestimated. The pine foliage contained the lowest concentrations of nutrients, indicating the high nutrient use efficiency of this species. On the sites degraded after disturbance, pine and birch grew under N‐limitation stress, while the alder—a N‐fixing species—grew under P‐limitation stress, especially at the PF site. The PF soils under alder were also characterized by higher acidity, P depletion, and higher C:P and N:P ratios compared to the PF soils under the other studied species. We found that birch should be the most common tree species in the first phase of area regeneration after disturbances. Introducing alder into afforestation should take place in admixtures, especially at the PF site.

Use of lidar for monitoring vegetation growth dynamics in reclaimed mine lands in Kentucky

Surface coal mining in the Appalachian region has led to a significant forest disturbance over time. Evaluating the effectiveness of current reclamation practices in promoting vegetation growth on reclaimed mine sites is a key to understanding how much vegetation has changed in those sites since reclamation. This study employed statewide airborne lidar data to assess changes in lidar vegetation structural metrics on reclaimed mine lands in the Lower Levisa Watershed of Eastern Kentucky between 2011 and 2019 and compare vegetation growth at various reclaimed sites reclaimed in different decades. Eighteen inactive surface mines were selected for the study and categorized into four groups based on the release of their reclamation bonds in different decades. Lidar point cloud data were processed in ArcGIS Pro using filtering and segmentation algorithms to calculate various vegetation attributes from the point clouds, including maximum vegetation height (Hmax), mean height (Hmean), standard deviation of height (HSD), canopy cover (CC), and height percentiles (10, 50 and 75), which were represented as lidar metrics. The process of generating the lidar metrics involved creating Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) and Digital Surface Models (DSMs), calculating Canopy Height Models (CHMs), creating LAS height metrics and generating point statistics rasters to derive these metrics. Change maps for each metric were visually assessed over time, and circular plots with a radius of 12 m were established within each site for further statistical analysis. Significant changes in lidar vegetation metrics were observed between 2011 and 2019 with significant differences among sites reclaimed at different time periods. There was an overall increase in Hmean from 2011 to 2019, with values ranging from 2.4 to 3.8 m. Sites reclaimed in the 1980s experienced an average decrease in canopy cover of −0.5%, while those from the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s demonstrated increases of 4.9%, 10.1%, and 18.1%, respectively, suggesting that canopy growth rates are higher in younger sites compared to older ones. Vertical variability of the vegetation also increased over time, as indicated by increasing HSD values. Utilizing statewide airborne lidar data allowed for a comprehensive and detailed assessment of vegetation dynamics on reclaimed mine lands. The findings of this study serve as a foundation for future research endeavors focused on vegetation recovery assessment and success in reclaimed mine lands using lidar data.

Microbial composition and function in reclaimed mine sites along a reclamation chronosequence become increasingly similar to undisturbed reference sites

Mine reclamation historically focuses on enhancing plant coverage to improve below and aboveground ecology. However, there is a great need to study the role of soil microorganisms in mine reclamation, particularly long-term studies that track the succession of microbial communities. Here, we investigate the trajectory of microbial communities of mining sites reclaimed between three and 26 years. We used high-throughput amplicon sequencing to characterize the bacterial and fungal communities. We quantified how similar the reclaimed sites were to unmined, undisturbed reference sites and explored the trajectory of microbial communities along the reclamation chronosequence. We also examined the ecological processes that shape the assembly of bacterial communities. Finally, we investigated the functional potential of the microbial communities through metagenomic sequencing. Our results reveal that the reclamation age significantly impacted the community compositions of bacterial and fungal communities. As the reclamation age increases, bacterial and fungal communities become similar to the unmined, undisturbed reference site, suggesting a favorable succession in microbial communities. The bacterial community assembly was also significantly impacted by reclamation age and was primarily driven by stochastic processes, indicating a lesser influence of environmental properties on the bacterial community. Furthermore, our read-based metagenomic analysis showed that the microbial communities' functional potential increasingly became similar to the reference sites. Additionally, we found that the plant richness increased with the reclamation age. Overall, our study shows that both above- and belowground ecological properties of reclaimed mine sites trend towards undisturbed sites with increasing reclamation age. Further, it demonstrates the importance of microbial genomics in tracking the trajectory of ecosystem reclamation.

Crop production potential of reclaimed mine sites for sustainable livelihoods

Purpose: Potentiality of six reclaimed mine sites for crop production at Goldfields Ghana Limited, Tarkwa Mine was holistically assessed. Research methodology: Soil pH was traced using HI 9017 microprocessor meter while total nitrogen (TN), organic matter (OM) and organic carbon (OC) were determined by Kjeldahl digestion, distillation and Walkley-Black Methods. Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium(K), sodium (Na), were further determined in 1.0 M ammonium acetate (NH4OAc) extract, using hydrogen and aluminum in 1.0 M KCl, by EDTA titration and flame photometry. Results: Optimum soil pH, compared with other parameters down the trend was less than 4.33. In cmolkg-1, OM at Ajopa natural forest soil (2.52) was greater than West Heap (2.08). TN differed significantly (p ? 0.001) such that, Ajopa natural forest (0.13%) was greater than West Heap (0.11%). West Heap Ca (3.52) was greater than Bridge Dump Ground (BDG’s) (1.78) while Mg (1.25) at BDG was greater than West Heap (1.22). West Heap’s K (0.16) was greater than BDG’s (0.13). Sodium was entirely low (< 5 %). But acidity of Ajopa natural forest (1.90) was greater than BDG’s (1.89) while effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) of West Heap (5.95) was greater than BDG’s (4.68). Limitation: Study sites sparsely located and require more experience to locate sampling points. Contribution: Analyses clearly revealed poor agglomeration of cation exchange capacities due to inadequate fertility of the seven-year old reclaimed mine sites. Hence, it may not give good crop yields for sustainable economic livelihoods strategies without long-term augmented fertilization and liming.

N fertilization did not raise soil greenhouse gas emissions in a reforested reclaimed-mine site over a short-term study

Bauxite mining is a human activity that can have drastic effects on the soil environment, altering its physical, chemical, and biological properties. To improve water and nutrient retention, microbiological activity, and environmental service, it is essential to recover and maintain soil organic carbon stocks. Reforesting reclaimed mine sites and fertilization are two strategies that can be used to eliminate nutrient limitation and accelerate biomass production and soil C sequestration. In this study, we investigated the secondary impacts of nitrogen (N) fertilization on greenhouse gas emissions, microbial community, and total phospholipid fatty acid analysis over a 17-day period at a reclaimed mine site in Brazil. Three forest species compositions were tested: only Eucalyptus, only Anadenanthera peregrina, and a mixture of 16 native forest species collected in fragments of Atlantic Forest. Our short-term observation did not reveal any significant effects of short-term N fertilization on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, total phospholipid fatty acid analysis, or the relative abundance of the microbial community. These initial short-term results were favorable for acceptance of the N fertilization recommendation for stimulating biomass regeneration in reclaimed mine sites because there were no negative impacts on environmental quality indexes, such as GHG fluxes. However, longer-term experiments are necessary to better understand the environmental costs and benefits of long-term N fertilization practices associated with reclaimed sites and confirm its recommendation.

Arsenic in groundwater in the Grand Canyon region and an evaluation of potential pathways for arsenic contamination of groundwater from breccia pipe uranium mining

The Grand Canyon in northern Arizona is an international tourist destination, a home or sacred place to many Native Americans, and hosts some of the highest-grade uranium deposits in the United States. Although potential contamination of water resources by uranium from mining activities is a concern, other elements commonly associated with these uranium deposits may pose a greater risk to human populations in the area. This study presents an assessment of arsenic in groundwater in the Grand Canyon area. First, sampling results for arsenic are presented and areas with elevated arsenic concentrations are discussed. Potential pathways of groundwater contamination by arsenic from uranium mines are then discussed to elucidate situations and conditions under which elevated concentrations of arsenic might be expected to become mobilized from breccia-pipe uranium mining activities. Results for arsenic in groundwater in the study area were available for 652 samples collected from 230 sites. Arsenic concentrations in groundwater ranged from less than reporting limits in 60 samples to a maximum concentration of 875 μg/L at Pumpkin Spring. About 88% (202) of the sites sampled had a maximum arsenic concentration below the drinking water standard of 10 μg/L. Available data from near former or current breccia-pipe uranium mines in the area indicate limited evidence to-date of mining effects on elevated arsenic in groundwater, although slow groundwater flow paths in the region may result in extended times of decades or more for groundwater to reach discharge locations. Post-mining entry of groundwater into the shaft and underground mine workings, with subsequent transport of metal-enriched groundwater offsite, may be a potential pathway of groundwater arsenic contamination from mining, although concentrations would likely be attenuated by contact with sedimentary rock units and dilution with native groundwater along flow paths. Monitoring of perched groundwater at reclaimed mine sites post-reclamation could provide data on the effectiveness of clean-closure practices on protecting groundwater quality in the area.

Recovering of soil organic matter and associated C and N pools on regenerated forest ecosystems at different tree species influence on post-fire and reclaimed mine sites

Understanding the processes in soils after disturbances could be helpful in better designing restoration practices. The labile fraction of soil organic carbon (LSOC) plays a vital role in recovering soil properties and quality. This study compared labile C and N fractions, including microbial biomass C (MBC), cold-water-soluble C (WSC), water-soluble N (WSN), hot-water-extractable C (HWC), hot-water-extractable N (HWN), particulate organic carbon (POC), and particulate organic nitrogen (PON) in post-mining, post-fire, and undisturbed soils under different tree cover (Scots pine, common birch, and black alder). Nearly 30 years after the disturbance, post-mining soils were characterized by lower soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) as well as their labile fractions compared to those of post-fire and undisturbed soils. Disturbed soils had less stable SOC than undisturbed soils. Compared to the post-fire site, the higher proportion of WSC in SOC in post-mining soils suggests higher SOC turnover and leaching potential during primary succession compared to secondary succession. The post-fire soils had a similar SOC stock to undisturbed soils but differed in the C and N labile fractions stock. Post-fire soils were characterized by higher POC stocks due to charcoal admixture and lower WSN, HWC, and HWN fractions than undisturbed soils. The studied tree species differently affected the recovery of SOM properties after disturbances. Post-mining soils under alder had higher SOC, TN, and labile fractions (except MBC) than soils under birch and pine cover. However, this was not true for the post-fire site, where only WSN was higher under the alder. The soils under birch stands had the highest MBC stocks across all sites. The soils under pine had less stable SOM than those under birch and alder, which may accelerate podzolization processes. Results indicate a longer time for the recovery of C and N pools during primary succession than in secondary succession on sandy soils. Alder, as phytomelioration species that increases the C and N pools in post-fire sites, has limited usefulness.

Microbial Composition on Abandoned and Reclaimed Mining Sites in the Komi Republic (North Russia)

Restoration of anthropogenically disturbed soils is an urgent problem in modern ecology and soil biology. Restoration processes in northern environments are especially important, due to the small amounts of fertile land and low levels of natural succession. We analyzed the soil microbiota, which is one of the indicators of the succession process is the soil. Samples were obtained from three disturbed soils (self-overgrown and reclaimed quarries), and two undisturbed soils (primary and secondary forests). Primary Forest soil had a well-developed soil profile, and a low pH and TOC (total organic carbon) amount. The microbial community of this soil had low richness, formed a clear remote cluster in the beta-diversity analysis, and showed an overrepresentation of Geobacter (Desulfobacteriota). Soil formation in clay and limestone abandoned quarries was at the initial stage, and was caused by both a low rate of mineral profile formation and severe climatic conditions in the region. Microbial communities of these soils did not have specific abundant taxa, and included a high amount of sparse taxa. Differences in taxa composition were correlated with abiotic factors (ammonium concentration), which, in turn, can be explained by the parent rock properties. Limestone quarry reclaimed by topsoil coverage resulted in an adaptation of the top soil microbiota to a novel parent rock. According to the CCA analysis, the microbial composition of samples was connected with pH, TOC and ammonium nitrogen concentration. Changes in pH and TOC were connected with ASVs from Chloroflexota, Gemmatimonadota and Patescibacteria. ASVs from Gemmatimonadota also were correlated with a high ammonium concentration.

Carbon Regulating Services of A 30-year-old Reclaimed Limestone Mine Area in Foothills of Himalaya

The study aims to assess various carbon regulating services of a limestone mine site, reclaimed 30 years back, compared to its adjoining natural forest. The natural forest is dominated by broad leaf species ( Quercus leucotricophora ) whereas, the reclaimed sites have Cupressus torulosa as the dominant species. Though there was no significant difference in the number of species of various life forms (trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses), total basal cover (TBC) estimated for the natural forest (2513.36cm 2 /100m 2 ) was much higher compared to the reclaimed site (584.30 to 997.07 cm 2 /100m 2 ). The difference is much higher in TBC of trees compared to shrubs. Annual litter production was also higher in the natural forest. Microbial activity in the top soil layer was found to have increased substantially in the reclaimed mine site. Soil respiration rate and soil microbial biomass in the reclaimed mine site was on a par with that of natural forest. It indicates a significant level of organic matter and detritus availability in the reclaimed sites' top soils since the soil's degradable organic carbon is the main fuel responsible for the CO emission during soil 2 respiration. Though the carbon assimilation rate recorded in the vegetation of the reclaimed area is on a par with that of vegetation of natural forest at the species level, at the community level, the reclaimed site may have lower assimilation owing to lower TBC. Therefore, the difference in vegetation structure and composition in the reclaimed site compared to the natural forest might significantly impact the overall carbon regulating services in the study area.

Influence of tree species on carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus stocks and stoichiometry under different soil regeneration scenarios on reclaimed and afforested mine and post-fire forest sites

In this work, we present the effects of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), common birch (Betula pendula Roth), and black alder (Alnus glutinosa Gaertn.) on the carbon (Cstock), nitrogen (Nstock), and phosphorus (Pstock) stocks and stoichiometry in the uppermost soil horizons (Oi + Oe, 0–5 cm) on afforested post-mining sand-pit and post-fire forest sites. These results were compared to those for undisturbed forest sites under the same tree species. The Cstock and Nstock of the post-fire soils were similar to those of the undisturbed soils, but lower for the reclaimed mine site. Notably, tree species affected the distribution of Cstock between the organic and mineral horizons. Compared to the other tree species, pine was characterized by a higher Cstock in the Oi + Oe horizons of the post-mining and undisturbed soils. In the 0–5-cm soil horizons, the highest Cstock values were detected under alder at the post-mining site and under birch and alder at the undisturbed site. For all of the studied sites, the C:N ratios in the litter horizons occurred in the following order: alder < birch < pine. This trend was only reflected in the mineral horizons of the undisturbed sites, which indicates the very temporary impact of organic matter on the disturbed sites. The C:P and N:P ratios in the mineral soil horizons were higher for the post-fire site than the post-mining and undisturbed sites, which may indicate a P limitation for the given content of C and N. Black alder, as a N-fixer, can increase the C:P and N:P ratios in nutrient-poor, sandy soils after disturbance in comparison with the other studied tree species, especially in post-fire soils. The uppermost mineral soil horizons under alder were characterized by higher C:P and N:P ratios than the soils under pine on the post-mining site and under the other tree species on the post-fire site. The N:P ratios in the litter horizons under alder on the disturbed sites were higher than for the other tree species, while this was not true for the undisturbed soils where alder grew under nutrient-optimal conditions. This suggests that the phytomelioration influence of N-fixers on degraded and nutrient-poor soils, may be inhibited by P limitation.

Mine soil health on surface mined lands reclaimed to grassland

Appalachian states of the USA have over 15,000 km2 of surface mined land. Many mine sites in northern Appalachia were reclaimed with salvaged topsoil to aid revegetation and few studies have measured soil health of reclaimed mine soils in this region of Appalachia with topsoil replaced and grassland established. The objective of this study was to assess soil quality by using six soil health indicators from two methodologies (NRCS Soil Quality Test Kit vs Standard laboratory/field methods) on four reclaimed mine sites. On these sites, three of the six soil health indicators gave similar results between methodologies: infiltration (INFIL) (NRCS: 0.117 vs Standard: 0.114 cm min−1), pH (6.6 vs 6.4), and soil respiration (RESP) (45 vs 57 kg CO2-C ha−1 day−1); but two were different: bulk density (BD) (1.30 vs 1.46 Mg m−3) and electrical conductivity (EC) (0.113 vs 0.226 dS m−1). Wet aggregate stability (WA) showed similar trends between methodologies but could not be statistically analyzed because of different measurement units. The four sites differed in age since reclamation which offered an opportunity to assess soil quality changes over time. BD decreased, and WA, INFIL, pH, EC and RESP increased with age. The results showed that soil health indicators determined with the NRCS Soil Quality Test Kit provided similar results and trends to Standard methodologies and can be used to evaluate soil quality of mine soils. Both methodologies verified that mine soil health indicators improve with time since reclamation.

Assessing the effects of nurse shrubs, sink patches and plant water-use strategies for the establishment of late-successional tree seedlings in Mediterranean reclaimed mining hillslopes

The use of ecohydrologically suitable microsites, such as sink patches (i.e. zones intercepting and infiltrating runoff) and nurse shrubs, have largely been proposed as tools to improve the establishment of late-successional trees in Mediterranean reclaimed landscapes. Nonetheless, this technique needs to be accurately tested along with the influence of seedling water-use strategy. To that purpose, we monitored the short- and mid-term (i.e. 4 and 8 years, respectively) influence of sink patches and nurse shrubs (Genista scorpius) on seedlings of two species with contrasted water-use strategies, Pinus nigra, a more drought avoider and isohydric species, and Quercus ilex, a more drought tolerant and anisohydric species. In the short term, G. scorpius shrubs enhanced the establishment of seedlings planted in shaded spots under its canopy. This positive interaction was more relevant for Q. ilex in drier years, while P. nigra was more facilitated in wetter years. Sink patches ameliorated the survival of both species, but only promoted greater growth during wetter years. P. nigra seedlings showed a high sensitivity to precipitation reduction. Their survival and growth were strongly constrained in dry years, resulting in a very high cumulative mortality at the end of the 8-year study period regardless of the microsite the seedlings were planted in. Q. ilex showed better seedling performance than P. nigra in the mid-term, keeping also the positive effects of suitable microsites on plant survival in the mid-term, after 8 years of plantation. Our results support the use of suitable microsites that ameliorate ecohydrological conditions as key spots for enhancing ecological succession in reclaimed mining sites, particularly the use of G. scorpius as nurse shrub for improving Q. ilex seedling establishment and growth. Our results also suggest that seedling functional strategy to cope with drought is a critical factor conditioning the overall plantation performance in the mid-term. Thus, seedling water-use strategy should constitute a key species selection criteria in future restoration programs focused on Mediterranean ecosystems, especially under climate change.

Labile Fraction of Soil Organic Carbon and Nitrogen in Post-Fire and Reclaimed Mine Sites in Relation to Different Tree Species Influence as Forest Ecosystem Regeneration Patterns

Labile Fraction of Soil Organic Carbon and Nitrogen in Post-Fire and Reclaimed Mine Sites in Relation to Different Tree Species Influence as Forest Ecosystem Regeneration Patterns

Reclaimed Mine Sites: Forests and Plant Diversity

The relationship between vegetation and selected soil characteristics in different monoculture forest types was investigated as part of a landscape restoration project after brown coal mining. Six forest types were selected: alder (Alnus sp.), spruce (Picea sp.), pine (Pinus sp.), larch (Larix sp.), long-term deciduous forest (Quercus robur, Tilia sp.), and forest created by spontaneous succession. These stands were classified into two age categories (younger and older). The soil attributes, C/N, TC, TN, pH, and A horizon depth were assessed. The observed species were categorized into functional groups by life history, life forms according to Raunkiær, and affinity to the forest environment. C/N ratio, humus thickness, and canopy cover were the main soil parameters affecting plant communities. The highest C/N values were recorded in Pinus and Larix stands, which were significantly different from deciduous and succession stands. The highest diversity index was noted in younger stands of Alnus and the lowest in younger stands of Picea. Intermediate values of the diversity index were achieved in successional stands at both age levels and in Larix and Alnus stands. The species belonging to a functional group was not an important factor in these habitat types. The species composition and vegetation change over time in the Alnus, long-life deciduous, and Larix stands show that these species are more suitable for forestry reclamation than spruce or pine. The study also emphasizes the great value of spontaneous succession areas as full-fledged alternatives to forestry reclamation.

To Establish a Healthy Forest: Restoration of the Forest Herb Layer on a Reclaimed Mine Site

Restoration efforts, such as invasive species removal and establishment of native flora, can be resource intensive. Therefore, understanding the effectiveness of restoration efforts can provide land managers with the confidence to pursue restoration. This study evaluated the effects of invasive species removal and compared active revegetation to passive revegetation in enhancing forest integrity on reclaimed surface coal mine land in southeastern Ohio. Surface coal mining occurred in the area from the 1940s to the 1980s, leaving a near continuous disturbance footprint of 3704.5 ha. This study occurred within 3.6 ha of the larger disturbance footprint where mining activity ceased and reclamation with tree planting occurred in the 1960s. Due to the disturbance, the site was prone to invasive species until their removal began in 2017. In spring 2019, 2 y following invasive species removal and 1 y following seeding and planting, we completed vegetation and bloom surveys across three treatments: managed forest with invasive species removed and subsequent native plantings (planted), managed forest with invasive species removed only (unplanted), and unmanaged forest (control). Our study found vegetative species diversity, vegetative species richness, and floral species richness and bloom time were enhanced for treatments in which invasive species were removed. The planted and unplanted treatments also supported understories comprising a different community composition when compared to control plots. However, no difference was found in community composition between planted and unplanted treatments despite application of active revegetation to support understory regeneration. Overall, results after 2 y support invasive species removal to improve the herbaceous layer of an understory, with more time likely needed for planted material to establish in order to distinguish between revegetation methods.

Pedogenesis problems on reclaimed coal mining sites

Open-cast coal mining presents a big global issue because of the large areas the mines occupy, which get entirely changed. Their ecosystems lose most of their functions, and a huge amount of fertile soil gets utterly destroyed. Reclamation is a process of returning the functions of the soil after the excavation is finished, most commonly achieved by establishing vegetation, which can sometimes be very difficult. This happens due to the physical, chemical and biological changes that occur on these sites, which are described in this paper. Also, some directions for mitigating these problems are given. Once the vegetation is successfully introduced, natural cycles that were compromised by the mining are established once again, and the process of soil formation begins. Some trends and problems related to pedogenesis research on reclaimed mine sites are presented and discussed, along with presumptions of how the process of soil formation evolves on afforested clayey Technosols of central Europe. The potential future research which would confirm these presumptions is discussed, with the emphasis on the need of research performed on older reclamation sites, as well as sites with similar ecological conditions and different tree species cover.

Evaluating the Floral and Avian Communities of an Ohio Wetland at The Wilds: 7 Years After Restoration

Wetland restorations have become an important tool in ecosystem management and have contributed to stabilizing hydrology and nutrient cycles, increasing native plant cover, and improving water quality. Long-term monitoring is essential for evaluating the success of a wetland restoration. However, wetland restorations are often monitored for short time periods compared to the timescale on which some abiotic factors change. Vegetative and avian assessments were conducted for a partially restored wetland on a reclaimed mine site, located at The Wilds® in Cumberland, Ohio. These assessments were performed from June through August 2018, 7 years after the initial restoration, using the unrestored portion as a comparison to evaluate restoration effectiveness. The restored wetland is characterized by open water with emergent vegetation, whereas the unrestored portion is largely a dense cattail (Typhus spp.) stand with low levels of standing water. The vegetative surveys used the Ohio EPA's Vegetation Index of Biotic Integrity for Emergent Vegetation (VIBI-E) and the bird surveys used a modified point count method. VIBI-E data are available for the study wetland from 1 year before restoration until summer 2018, while the avian study represents the first bird point count survey in the 2 wetland categories. The year 7 VIBI-E score of the restored section was the highest it has been since the restoration occurred and indicated "good" quality based on Ohio EPA scoring. The year 7 VIBI-E of the unrestored section has not changed since monitoring started and indicated "restorable" quality. The bird surveys showed higher richness associated with the restored wetland areas. These results demonstrate both the ecological value of wetland restoration and the ability for wetland restoration to maintain the ecological benefits over several years.

Climate Change and Invasive Species: Challenges and Opportunities for Forest Establishment on Appalachian Surface Mines

ABSTRACT Climate change and harsh environmental conditions present significant barriers to the reforestation of surface-mined sites in Appalachia. An experimental site was established on a reclaimed surface mine in eastern Kentucky to investigate the impacts of soil amendments (fertilizer additions and mycorrhizal inoculations) on the growth and survival of northern red oak and loblolly pine, and the effects of amendments and species planted on soil development. While early effects of soil fertility and mycorrhizae treatments were apparent, these did not affect the growth or survival of either species after 10 growing seasons. Overall, loblolly pine exhibited greater growth (7.6 m) and survival (58%) than northern red oak (1.8 m height growth and 39% survival). While the poor growth and survival of northern red oak were attributed to heavy vegetative competition from nonnative species, loblolly pine rapidly achieved canopy closure and shaded out competitive understory vegetation. This study documents that non-native loblolly pine may serve as an important pioneering tree species in reforestation of reclaimed mine sites by potentially outcompeting invasive exotic understory plant species. We speculate that, by suppressing invasive species, loblolly pine may have the potential to serve as a “nurse tree” for more economically and ecologically desirable hardwood species.

Impacts of Coal Resource Development on Surface Water Quality in a Multi‐jurisdictional Watershed in the Western United States

AbstractThis study focuses on water quality and quantity impacts from natural resource development on watersheds originating on Crow tribal lands in southeastern Montana. Field research analysis will focus on the surface water quality in three adjacent watersheds. This study will determine impacts to water quality from reclaimed coal mine spoils surface runoff and produced water discharge from coal bed methane wells within the watersheds. A secondary research objective is to determine a baseline assessment of surface water in watersheds prior to proposed mine development, particularly on tribally owned and allotted tracts. Historical data from state agencies will also be compared to data collected within watersheds on tribal lands. Water quality impacts from mining development may be more pronounced than that of coal bed methane as the reclaimed mining sites have demonstrated lasting impacts on the nearby surface water quality in the study area. Historical and current samples have demonstrated increased sodium absorption ratio and sodium levels downstream of a mine site in a tributary to the primary watershed. A sample from a pond in another reclaimed mine site contained the highest sodium adsorption ratio levels of all surface water samples. Coal bed methane development impacts may have been transient in the primary watershed surface water based on sample results. Historical oil and gas development appears to be impacting surface water quality within the southernmost watershed. Analysis has shown the increasing degradation of water quality in watersheds downstream and across the state boundary of Montana into Wyoming where natural resource development has occurred.