Receptive Vocabulary Size Research Articles

Early, typical, and late talkers: an exploratory study on predictors of language development in the first two years of life.

The consensus in scientific literature is that each child undergoes a unique linguistic development path, albeit with shared developmental stages. Some children excel or lag behind their peers in language skills. Consequently, a key challenge in language acquisition research is pinpointing factors influencing individual differences in language development. We observed children longitudinally from 3 to 24 months of life to explore early predictors of vocabulary size. Based on the productive vocabulary size of children at 24 months, 30 children met our sample selection criteria: 10 late talkers and 10 early talkers, and we compared them with 10 typical talkers. We evaluated interactive behaviors at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months, considering vocal production, gaze at mother's face, and gestural production during mother-child interactions, and we considered mothers' report of children's actions and gestures and receptive-vocabulary size at 15 and 18 months. Results indicated early precursors of language outcome at 24 months identifiable as early as 3 months in vocal productions, 6 months for gaze at mother's face and 12 months for gestural productions. Our research highlights both theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, identifying the early indicators of belonging to the group of late or early talkers underscores the significant role of this developmental period for future studies. On a practical note, our findings emphasize the crucial need for early investigations to identify predictors of vocabulary development before the typical age at which lexical delay is identified.

Examining the Concurrent Contribution of Receptive and Productive Vocabulary Breadth Aspects to Moroccan EFL Students’ Speaking Ability

The present paper investigates the contribution of productive as well as receptive vocabulary breadths to Moroccan learners’ EFL speaking ability. The study’s significance lies in its exploration of the under-researched area of speaking proficiency, furthering our understanding of the link between vocabulary knowledge and language skills. To further probe this connection, particularly in the high school context, this study investigated the relationship between vocabulary size and speaking ability using valid and reliable vocabulary research instruments. This study addressed two research questions: a) to what extent do receptive and productive vocabulary size scores correlate with speaking ability? b) to what extent do receptive and productive vocabulary size scores explain the variance in learners’ speaking ability? To answer these questions, the researchers administered the Updated Vocabulary Levels Test, the Productive Vocabulary Levels Test, and a speaking task to 40 tenth-grade EFL participants. Spoken data were graded by reference to IELTS’ speaking band descriptors. Results of Pearson Correlation disclosed positive correlations between receptive and productive lexical breadths and speaking proficiency. Moreover, findings of multiple linear regression revealed that receptive and productive vocabulary sizes could explain performance in speaking ability. Implications for EFL vocabulary instruction and speaking proficiency development are discussed.

Social and Linguistic Correlates of Vocabulary Size in Autism: Overlapping Vocalization and Phonological Memory.

This study sought to understand the wide variability in vocabulary development among autistic children by testing potential social and linguistic correlates of vocabulary size. The correlation between overlapping vocalization (i.e., an aspect of social interaction relevant to accessing input for vocabulary acquisition) and phonological memory (i.e., retaining linguistic sound sequences) with vocabulary size were examined in 22 autistic children (3 to 11years old) engaged in a structured nonword repetition task. Overlapping vocalization and phonological memory were correlated with vocabulary size. Overlapping vocalization remained a significant predictor of receptive and expressive vocabulary size when controlling phonological memory and nonverbal cognition. Both social and linguistic factors were associated with receptive and expressive vocabulary size in autistic children engaged in a structured task.

How does social contingency facilitate vocabulary development?

Previous research shows that infants of parents who are more likely to engage in socially contingent interactions with them tend to have larger vocabularies. An open question is how social contingency facilitates vocabulary growth. One possibility is that parents who speak in response to their infants more often produce larger amount of language input, which accelerates vocabulary growth. Another possibility is that the simplicity of contingent language input is especially suitable to support early word learning. A third possibility is that more evidence of the communicative nature of language, achieved through frequent contingent responses, helps infants build a link between their own words or vocalizations and others' behaviors. This link may lead to a better understanding of the communicative nature of language and further language advances, including vocabulary growth. To distinguish between these hypotheses, we analyzed the relations between parent-infant interactions when infants were 9 months and their vocabulary size at 12 months, using a naturalistic corpus. Our findings show that the frequency of parents' verbal contingent responses predicts receptive vocabulary size at 12 months and this predictive relation is unlikely to be due to the amount of language input or the simplicity of language within socially contingent interactions. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Infants of parents who respond to their vocalizations more often during the first year of life tend to have larger vocabularies in the second year. It is an open question what drives the predictive relation between parents' responsiveness and infants' vocabulary; we tested three hypotheses that offer competing explanations. More responsive parents might provide (1) more language input, (2) simpler language input, (3) more evidence of the communicative nature of language (via frequent responses). We find support for the third hypothesis; the frequency of parents' responses predicts infants' vocabularies above and beyond the amount and simplicity of language input.

Caregiver encouragement to act on objects is related with crawling infants' receptive language.

The progression from crawling to walking in infancy is associated with changes in infant language development. One possible explanation for such change is the infant's language environment. Prior research indicates that caregivers use more action directives with walking infants compared to crawling infants, but the relations of such parental speech with infant vocabulary is unknown. Here, we present findings from day-long home audio recordings (Study 1) and laboratory observations (Study 2) of same-aged crawling and walking infants to explore how caregiver language, specifically action directives, were associated with parent reported infant vocabulary size. Findings in both studies indicated that caregiver action directives were associated with crawling, but not walking infants' receptive vocabulary sizes. Specifically, action directives about objects occurring when the infant and caregiver were not jointly engaged were associated with higher receptive vocabulary scores for crawling infants, but no such pattern was found for walking infants. The replication of results in distinct samples with different research methodologies strengthens the findings. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that caregiver social engagement specific to infant motoric development is related with infant language learning.

The Combined Contributions of Newborn Stress and Parenting Stress on Toddler Language Development

ObjectiveTo examine the longitudinal associations between newborn neurobehavioral stress signs, maternal parenting stress, and several indices of toddler language development. Study designParticipants include 202 mother-infant dyads (104 girls). We measured stress signs in neonates in the hospital at least 24 hours after birth using the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale. At 7 months, parenting stress (competence, attachment, and role restriction) was assessed using the Parenting Stress Index. At 18 months, mothers completed the Communicative Development Inventories, which measured toddler gesturing, expressive vocabulary, and receptive vocabulary. Longitudinal path modeling was used to estimate associations between neonatal stress signs, parenting stress, and toddler language, and a model was generated for each language outcome. Child sex, birth weight, and family income were included as covariates. ResultsInfants who exhibited greater neurobehavioral stress signs at birth produced significantly fewer social-communicative gestures at 18-months of age. Among infants whose mothers reported low (but not high) levels of parenting stress during the first postnatal year, newborn stress signs were negatively associated with 18-month-olds’ receptive vocabulary size. Neither newborn stress signs nor parenting stress were significantly related to toddler expressive vocabulary size. ConclusionsOur findings uncover a negative association between newborn stress signs and toddler gesturing. Furthermore, our results suggest that caregiver stress and neonatal stress signs interact to predict toddler receptive vocabulary. Taken together, these results demonstrate that some neonates who exhibit increased neurobehavioral stress signs may be at heightened risk for experiencing language difficulties. These children may benefit from additional support in infancy.

Teachers’ receptive and productive vocabulary sizes in English-medium instruction

ABSTRACT Despite the growing popularity of English-medium instruction (EMI), the conditions for and consequences of teaching and learning academic content through English are poorly understood. The ability of teachers in the EMI environment (i.e. disciplinary or ‘content’ teachers) to engage students in English is central in this regard since intelligible interaction between the teacher and the students is a precondition for learning when the medium of instruction is English. Across EMI contexts, concerns have been raised about teachers’ level of English proficiency (their ability to speak, write, read and listen in English), but research measuring their English proficiency attainments is lacking. This paper focuses on a key dimension of teachers’ English proficiency: vocabulary knowledge. Teachers (n = 130) took tests of receptive and productive knowledge of general and academic English vocabulary. The testing revealed significant proficiency variation in the cohorts tested, with some teachers exhibiting very low levels (<3000 words) of receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. Implications for teaching in EMI are discussed.

Receptive Vocabulary Size of Omani Post-Basic Education Graduates

This descriptive study examined the receptive vocabulary size of Omani post-basic education graduates. Also, it investigated the relationship between receptive vocabulary size and language proficiency among these students. Finally, it examined differences in receptive vocabulary size with respect to gender. The sample consisted of 294 Omani post-basic education graduates (183 males and 111 females) who were enrolled in foundation programs at Sultan Qaboos University. The study instrument was the Vocabulary Level Test Version B, which was developed by Nation (1983) and revised by Schmitt, Schmitt, and Clapham (2001). The study found that the Omani post-basic graduates had a small receptive vocabulary of approximately 1,725 word families. It also found a statistically significant relationship between students’ receptive vocabulary size and their language proficiency. Finally, it revealed statistically significant differences in receptive vocabulary size with respect to gender in favor of female students. Accordingly, the researcher provides recommendations for practice and further research.

How Useful Are Bilingualized Dictionaries in Discriminating Between Near-Synonyms?

Abstract This study investigates the usefulness of a bilingualized dictionary (BLD) against a monolingual one (MD) in a fill-in-the-blank test requiring the ability to discriminate between a set of near-synonyms. 156 participants, all English major undergraduates studying in Poland, were divided into two groups based on the type of dictionary they used. The study compared the two groups with respect to their test scores, learners’ prior receptive vocabulary knowledge, and task completion time. The experiment revealed the limitations of the BLD in this type of task, demonstrating that the dictionary was no more useful than the MD. While the scores were unaffected by dictionary type, they were significantly influenced by the learners’ receptive vocabulary size: the larger the size, the better the performance. The task completion time was not significantly affected by dictionary type, vocabulary size, or scores. The paper discusses learners’ errors and possible reasons for the limitations of the BLD.

Lexical Profile of the Moroccan National High-stakes Baccalaureate Reading Test Materials: A Corpus-based Approach

Lexical profiling studies are concerned with the lexical breadth required to achieve 95% and 98% coverage of various kinds of verbal or textual materials (Webb, 2021). While prior research has concentrated on the lexical load of EFL textbooks (Nguyen, 2020; Sun &amp; Dang, 2020), scarce research has examined the lexical demands of local proficiency tests. This study investigated the lexical profile of Moroccan national reading exams in relation to coverage in Nation’s (2012) BNC/COCA frequency wordlists. To achieve these objectives, a corpus of 10,536 tokens, covering all the reading materials from 2008 to 2022, was compiled. Moreover, the Vocabulary Size Test (Nation &amp; Belgar, 2007) was administered to 72 baccalaureate students to measure their vocabulary size. The findings of an examination utilising the Antwordprofiler and 11 BNC/COCA lists revealed that vocabulary sizes of 3,000 word families and 4,000 word families, including proper nouns, are needed to achieve 97% and 98% coverage rates in the corpus. Additionally, findings of the descriptive statistics showed that the receptive vocabulary size of the respondents (n=72) was 2,015 words. These results showed that Moroccan baccalaureate students’ lexical breadth is insufficient to attain 95% coverage. Implications for vocabulary instruction in Moroccan EFL classrooms are discussed.

Even young children make multiple predictions in the complex visual world

Children can anticipate upcoming input in sentences with semantically constraining verbs. In the visual world, the sentence context is used to anticipatorily fixate the only object matching potential sentence continuations. Adults can process even multiple visual objects in parallel when predicting language. This study examined whether young children can also maintain multiple prediction options in parallel during language processing. In addition, we aimed at replicating the finding that children’s receptive vocabulary size modulates their prediction. German children (5–6 years, n = 26) and adults (19–40 years, n = 37) listened to 32 subject–verb–object sentences with semantically constraining verbs (e.g., “The father eats the waffle”) while looking at visual scenes of four objects. The number of objects being consistent with the verb constraints (e.g., being edible) varied among 0, 1, 3, and 4. A linear mixed effects model on the proportion of target fixations with the effect coded factors condition (i.e., the number of consistent objects), time window, and age group revealed that upon hearing the verb, children and adults anticipatorily fixated the single visual object, or even multiple visual objects, being consistent with the verb constraints, whereas inconsistent objects were fixated less. This provides first evidence that, comparable to adults, young children maintain multiple prediction options in parallel. Moreover, children with larger receptive vocabulary sizes (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) anticipatorily fixated potential targets more often than those with smaller ones, showing that verbal abilities affect children’s prediction in the complex visual world.

Model‐based feedback for L2 writing revision: The role of vocabulary size and language aptitude

AbstractAlthough the utility of model‐based feedback is well documented, little is known about which factors modulate its effectiveness. The current study investigated the extent to which learner differences in receptive and productive vocabulary sizes, as well as differences in their language aptitude (measured by the LLAMA test), mediated the effects of using models as a written corrective feedback (WCF) tool. Sixty Korean learners of English (ages 18–21) were divided into an experimental and a control group. They all completed an argumentative writing task. Before revising their texts, the experimental group received model texts to compare their first draft, while the control group self‐corrected their errors without a model. Subsequently, all 60 participants took the LLAMA and vocabulary size tests. The model group's revisions showed significant improvements in vocabulary, content, and organization compared to the control group. The results also showed that learners’ receptive and productive vocabulary sizes significantly predicted the effectiveness of model‐based feedback.

Receptive vocabulary size estimates for general and academic vocabulary at a multi-campus Australian university

Abstract There are few published estimates of vocabulary sizes amongst students in tertiary education. Research does not offer estimates of the vocabulary size tertiary students might be expected to possess, though estimates exist for K-12 education, some EFL contexts, and the general population. Such research is important. For reading comprehension during tertiary education, a vocabulary of minimally 10,000 words is recommended, along with proficiency in academic vocabulary. A recent study of three universities in the United Kingdom concluded pedagogical intervention was required, since estimates indicated undergraduates knew fewer than 10,000 words. A subsequent study of a New Zealand university found students knew 16,000 words and pedagogical intervention was not required. The current study investigates 433 tertiary students at an Australian university to determine if students required vocabulary support. It contributes to a research record allowing for comparisons internationally, nationally, and over time. Methods employed included the Vocabulary Size Test/VST and Academic Vocabulary Test/AVT. Results indicate an average vocabulary size of 16,117 words, with academic vocabulary well-known.

Describing communication profiles of low-risk preterm and full-term late talkers

IntroductionLate talkers represent a heterogeneous population. We aimed to describe communication profiles of low-risk preterm and full-term late talkers according to their receptive and expressive vocabulary size, considering communicative, linguistic, cognitive, and motor skills, as well as biological and environmental risk factors. MethodsSixty-eight late talkers (33 born low-risk preterm and 35 full-term) were identified through a language screening at 30 months. Parents filled out the Italian Short Forms of the MacArthur Bates Communicative Development Inventories and the Socio Conversational Skills Rating Scales. Children were assessed with the Picture Naming Game test and the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development. ResultsA two-step cluster analysis identified three distinct profiles among late talkers according to their receptive and expressive vocabulary size. Severe late talkers (25%) showed less frequent use of pointing, limited verbal imitation, receptive vocabulary size, lexical and sentence production, responsiveness and assertiveness, and lower cognitive scores than mild late talkers (40%). Moderate late talkers (35%) showed less frequent verbal imitation, limited lexical and sentence production and lower cognitive scores than mild late talkers. Male gender was significantly more represented in the severe late profile, whereas other biological and environmental factors did not differ among the three profiles. ConclusionsFindings highlighted the relevance of assessing communicative, lexical, grammar, pragmatic, and cognitive skills to describe late talkers’ profiles. A deeper investigation of phonological skills might also contribute to a further understanding of interindividual variability in this population.

Using Causal Explanation Speaking Tasks to Assess Young EFL learners’ Speaking Ability: The Effects of Age, Cognitive, and L2 Linguistic Development

ABSTRACT This paper examined to what extent causal explanation speaking tasks (CESTs) are cognitively appropriate for assessing young language learners’ (YLLs) L2 speaking. Ninety-six YLLs (48 from Grade 4 and 6 each) in China performed two CESTs in both L1 (Chinese) and L2 (English). They also completed receptive and productive L2 vocabulary size tests. We examined how their CEST performance scores, choice of causal antecedents, and speech utterances were related with language modes of the tasks (L1 vs. L2), grade levels, and L2 vocabulary sizes. L2 CEST performance scores were found to have significant positive correlations with L2 productive vocabulary size. CESTs were found to be generally cognitively appropriate for YLLs because their high scores in L1 performance indicated that performing CESTs is within their L1 capacity. By examining causal connectives used by YLLs, we found that learners from both age groups had cognitive ability sufficient to verbalise causality. Yet YLLs’ cognitive ability to interpret and verbalise mental states is still developing and reasoning between causal antecedents that have competing causal relationship with the final state can be cognitively challenging. We discussed the findings with reference to the design of cognitively appropriate CESTs that can assess both language and thinking skills. 本文研究了因果解释口语任务从认知层面来说是否适宜测评儿童语言学习者的二语口语能力。九十六名中国的儿童语言学习者(四年级与六年级各四十八名)分别用第一语言(汉语)和第二语言(英语)完成了两个因果解释口语任务。他们还完成了接受性和产出性二语词汇测试。我们分析了他们的因果解释口语任务的表现分数、对前因的选择和语言产出这三者与完成任务所使用的语言 (一语和二语)、所在年级和二语词汇量之间的关系。我们发现因果解释口语任务的二语表现分数与二语产出性词汇量之间呈显著正相关。他们用第一语言完成因果解释口语任务所获得的高分数说明完成这项任务在他们的一语能力范围之内,因此我们认为因果解释口语任务对于儿童语言学习者来说总体上是认知适宜的。通过分析儿童语言学习者使用因果连词的情况,我们还发现这两个年龄组的学习者拥有充分的认知能力来口头表达因果关系。不过儿童语言学习者理解和口头表达心理状态的能力尚处于发展阶段,他们对具有相互竞争关系的前因进行逻辑推导时会存在认知上的挑战。我们对研究结果的讨论主要涉及如何设计认知适宜的并能够同时测评语言和思维技能的因果解释口语任务。

Effects of Parents’ Word Instruction on Preschoolers’ Receptive Vocabulary Size: Mediating Effect of Word Awareness

Objectives: Word awareness is an important factor in word instruction for children in late preschool. This study aimed to verify whether parents’ word instruction promotes the growth of preschoolers’ receptive vocabulary size and whether the relation between the two variables is mediated by preschoolers’ word awareness.Methods: The study recruited 200 pairs of five to six-year-old preschoolers and their parents from 14 childcare centers in Sejong and Daejeon, South Korea. Experimenters asked the preschoolers to answer questions on word unit awareness, word arbitrariness awareness, word morphology awareness, word type awareness, and receptive vocabulary size from experimenters and videos. Parents were asked to answer the items on word instruction.Results: First, parents’ word instruction, preschoolers’ word awareness and receptive vocabulary size were positively correlated. Second, parents’ word instruction had a direct effect on preschoolers’ receptive vocabulary size and an indirect effect via preschoolers’ word awareness. Lastly, the partial mediating effects of word unit awareness, word arbitrariness awareness, word morphology awareness, and word type awareness on the relation between parents’ word instruction and receptive vocabulary size were all significant.Conclusion: This study revealed the importance of parents’ word instruction to enhance preschoolers’ awareness of various aspects of words. The present results offer useful information for developing vocabulary instruction programs for preschoolers and parents.

과학영재학교 재학생 영어발화 주파수 대역별 음향 에너지 분포의 영어 성취도 예측성 연구*

The average acoustic distribution of American English speakers was statistically compared with the English-speaking patterns of gifted students in a Science Academy in Korea. By analyzing speech recordings, the duration time of which is much longer than in previous studies, this research identified the degree of acoustic proximity between the two parties and the predictability of English academic achievement of gifted high school students. Long-term spectral acoustic power distribution vectors were obtained for 2,048 center frequencies in the range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz by applying an long-term average speech spectrum (LTASS) MATLAB code. Three more variables were statistically compared to discover additional indices that can predict future English academic achievement: the receptive vocabulary size test, the cumulative vocabulary scores of English formative assessment, and the English Speaking Proficiency Test scores. Linear regression and correlational analyses between the four variables showed that the receptive vocabulary size test and the low-frequency vocabulary formative assessments which require both lexical and domain-specific science background knowledge are relatively more significant variables than a basic suprasegmental level English fluency in the predictability of gifted students’ academic achievement.

LexCH: a quick and reliable receptive vocabulary size test for Chinese Learners

Abstract The measurement of vocabulary size is crucial in applied linguistics research. Although increasing attention has been given to the study of Chinese vocabulary assessment, few reliable and valid tools are available to evaluate Chinese learners’ receptive vocabulary size, particularly for teenagers and adults. We aim to fill this gap by developing LexCH, a quick, reliable and free receptive vocabulary size assessment tool that researchers and language teachers can readily adopt. In developing LexCH, we chose items covering a range of difficulty levels and with strong discriminative power as test items for the final version of LexCH based on item response theory. In total, 480 students from a junior high school and a high school in China participated in this study. Our initial validation results suggest that LexCH is a reliable and valid receptive vocabulary size test for L1 Chinese speakers; it also shows great potential for use among L2 Chinese learners. Implications for assessing receptive vocabulary size in Chinese learning are provided.

Masked speech recognition in school-age children with Down syndrome

Masked speech recognition is poorer for children who are typically developing compared to adults, particularly when the masker is two-talker speech. Audibility, receptive vocabulary size, and executive function contribute to these age effects, all areas of weakness for children with Down syndrome. This study sought to determine whether these weaknesses put children with Down syndrome (n = 15, 5–17 yrs) at a disadvantage when listening to masked speech compared to age-matched children who are typically developing. Speech-in-noise and speech-in-speech was assessed using an adaptive, forced-choice procedure with a picture-pointing response. Audiological testing and standardized assessments of receptive vocabulary, non-verbal cognition, and executive function were also completed. Overall, children with Down syndrome performed more poorly than their typically developing peers. While the relationship between age and SRTs differs between the noise and speech maskers for children who are typically developing, this interaction was not observed for children with Down syndrome. Controlling for age, SRTs for children with Down syndrome were associated with vocabulary and executive function scores with the noise masker but not the speech masker. Results suggest that masked speech recognition is more challenging and is limited by different factors for children with Down syndrome compared to those who are typically developing.

Vocabulary Growth in Mandarin-Speaking Children With Bilateral Cochlear Implants, Bimodal Stimulation, or Unilateral Cochlear Implants During the First Year After Activation.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate vocabulary development in Mandarin-speaking children with bilateral cochlear implants (CIs), bimodal stimulation (CI plus hearing aids [HAs]), or unilateral CIs during the first year after CI activation. Participants included 23 children with simultaneous bilateral CIs, 23 children with bimodal stimulation, and 15 children with unilateral CIs. They all received CIs before 30 months of age. Parents were asked to endorse words that their child could understand only or understand and say using the Early Vocabulary Inventory for Mandarin Chinese at the day of CI activation and 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months after CI activation. Receptive and expressive vocabulary sizes were computed. Growth curve analysis revealed that children with simultaneous bilateral CIs demonstrated faster growth of receptive vocabulary than those with bimodal stimulation, followed by those with unilateral CIs. Moreover, children with simultaneous bilateral CIs reached the 100-word mark for receptive vocabulary earlier than children with bimodal stimulation, followed by those with unilateral CIs. There were no significant differences among the three groups in expressive vocabulary. Bilateral CIs have an advantage over bimodal stimulation in early receptive vocabulary development in Mandarin, a tone language. HA usage is still recommended for those who receive one CI.