Recall Latency Research Articles

Optimization and Application of English Word Memory Algorithm Based on Reinforcement Learning

The optimization and application of an English word memory algorithm based on reinforcement learning involve refining a system that utilizes reinforcement learning techniques to enhance vocabulary retention. By leveraging reinforcement learning, the algorithm can adapt its strategies for presenting and reviewing English words based on users' responses and performance. This adaptive approach enables personalized and effective learning experiences, wherein the algorithm adjusts the frequency and timing of word repetitions to maximize memorization efficiency. Applications of this optimized algorithm span language learning platforms, educational apps, and personalized tutoring systems, offering learners tailored support to strengthen their English vocabulary acquisition and retention skills. This paper introduces the Spider Swarm Optimized English Word Memory Algorithm (SSOEWMA) algorithm, a novel approach aimed at optimizing language processing and learning tasks. Leveraging principles of reinforcement learning and swarm intelligence, SSOEWMA demonstrates its effectiveness in enhancing various aspects of language processing, including word difficulty assessment, sentence estimation, memory retention, and student performance evaluation. Through a series of experiments and evaluations, we showcase SSOEWMA ability to optimize dataset attributes, accurately estimate sentence characteristics, and improve memory retention performance. Simulation results achieved an average word recall accuracy of 85% across multiple evaluations. Through its utilization of reinforcement learning principles and swarm intelligence, SSOEWMA significantly improved memory retention performance, reducing recall latency by an average of 20% compared to baseline measures. Additionally, the algorithm demonstrated strong learning efficiency, converging to optimal solutions with a speed increase of 30% compared to traditional methods.

Impact of process interference on memory encoding and retrieval processes in dual-task situations

Dual-tasks at the memory encoding stage have been shown to decrease recall performance and impair concurrent task performance. In contrast, studies on the effect of dual-tasks at the memory retrieval stage observed mixed results. Which cognitive mechanisms are underlying this dual-task interference is still an unresolved question. In the present study, we investigated the influence of a concurrent reaction-time task on the performance in a long-term memory task in two experiments. In Experiment 1, participants performed an auditory-verbal free recall memory task and a visual-manual spatial Stroop task in a single or dual-task condition, either at the encoding or retrieval stage of the memory task. In Experiment 2, we examined the influence of processing conflicts in a concurrent RT task on memory encoding. Both experiments showed detrimental effects on recall accuracy and concurrent RT task performance in dual-task conditions at the encoding stage. Dual-task conditions at the retrieval stage led to a slowdown in recall latency and impaired concurrent RT task performance, but recall accuracy was maintained. In addition, we observed larger Stroop congruency effects in the dual-task conditions, indicating an increased processing conflict. However, in Experiment 2, we analyzed the effect of the processing conflict in a time-locked manner and could not find a significant influence on success of memory encoding. These findings suggest that processes in both tasks share the same limited capacity and are slowed down due to parallel processing, but we could not find evidence that this is further influenced by task-specific processing conflicts.

Role of attention in the associative relatedness effect in verbal working memory: Behavioral and chronometric perspectives.

Long-term semantic memory (LTM) is known for affecting recall during working memory (WM) tasks. However, the way LTM intervenes in WM remains unknown. Moreover, the available findings are incongruent concerning how attention modulates the impact of LTM on WM. To examine this issue, the involvement of LTM representations in a complex span task was manipulated through variations of the associative relatedness of memory items, while the attentional demand of the concurrent task was varied. Children and young adults were also compared, because children are less efficient in using refreshing for maintenance than adults. Despite the impact of the three main factors on recall performance, which was better for related than unrelated words, with the low rather than the high demanding concurrent task and for adults than children, there was no interaction between associative relatedness and attentional demand, neither in children nor in adults. We replicated these results in a second experiment with a more attention-demanding concurrent task. Moreover, analyses of recall latency showed that adults were faster than children at recalling words and both age groups were faster for related (vs. unrelated) words, but there was no effect of the concurrent attentional demand on recall latency and no interaction. Finally, errors were mostly omissions and transpositions, both more prevalent under high concurrent attentional demand. The present findings suggest that the availability of attention does not modulate the effect of LTM on WM. We discuss how WM models can account for this finding and how LTM can act on WM functioning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Asymmetric Weights and Retrieval Practice in an Autoassociative Neural Network Model of Paired-Associate Learning.

Rizzuto and Kahana (2001) applied an autoassociative Hopfield network to a paired-associate word learning experiment in which (1) participants studied word pairs (e.g., ABSENCE-HOLLOW), (2) were tested in one direction (ABSENCE-?) on a first test, and (3) were tested in the same direction again or in the reverse direction (?-HOLLOW) on a second test. The model contained a correlation parameter to capture the dependence between forward versus backward learning between the two words of a word pair, revealing correlation values close to 1.0 for all participants, consistent with neural network models that use the same weight for communication in both directions between nodes. We addressed several limitations of the model simulations and proposed two new models incorporating retrieval practice learning (e.g., the effect of the first test on the second) that fit the accuracy data more effectively, revealing substantially lower correlation values (average of .45 across participants, with zero correlation for some participants). In addition, we analyzed recall latencies, finding that second test recall was faster in the same direction after a correct first test. Only a model with stochastic retrieval practice learning predicted this effect. In conclusion, recall accuracy and recall latency suggest asymmetric learning, particularly in light of retrieval practice effects.

Cognitive Performance of Wild Eastern Gray Squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) in Rural and Urban, Native, and Non-native Environments

Enhanced cognitive ability has been shown to impart fitness advantages to some species by facilitating establishment in new environments. However, the cause of such enhancement remains enigmatic. Enhanced cognitive ability may be an adaptation occurring during the establishment process in response to new environments or, alternatively, such ‘enhancement’ may merely reflect a species’ characteristic. Based on previous findings that have shown ‘enhanced’ cognitive ability (i.e., higher success rate in solving novel food-extraction problems or, ‘innovation’) in Eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), a successful mammalian invader and urban dweller, we used an intraspecific comparative paradigm to examine the cause of their ‘enhanced’ cognitive ability. We conducted a field study to compare cognitive performance of free-ranging squirrels residing in rural and urban habitats in native (United States) and non-native environments (United Kingdom). By using established tasks, we examined squirrels’ performance in easy and difficult, novel food-extraction problems (innovation), a motor memory recall test of the difficult problem, and a spatial learning task. We found that the four groups of squirrels showed comparable performance in most measures. However, we also found that the native urban squirrels showed: (1) higher success rate on the first visit for the difficult problem than the non-native urban squirrels; (2) some evidence for higher recall latency for the difficult problem after an extended period than the non-native rural squirrels; and (3) learning when encountering the same difficult problem. These results suggest that the previously reported ‘enhanced’ performance is likely to be a general characteristic and thus, a pre-adaptive phenotypic trait that brings fitness advantages to this species in a new environment. Despite this, some cognitive abilities in gray squirrels such as solving novel problems has undergone mild variation during the adaptive process in new environments.

Imagery-Mediated Verbal Learning Depends on Vividness-Familiarity Interactions: The Possible Role of Dualistic Resting State Network Activity Interference.

Using secondary database analysis, we tested whether the (implicit) familiarity of eliciting noun-cues and the (explicit) vividness of corresponding imagery exerted additive or interactive influences on verbal learning, as measured by the probability of incidental noun recall and image latency times (RTs). Noun-cues with incongruent levels of vividness and familiarity (high/low; low/high, respectively) at encoding were subsequently associated at retrieval with the lowest recall probabilities, while noun-cues related with congruent levels (high/high; low/low) were associated with higher recall probabilities. RTs in the high vividness and high familiarity grouping were significantly faster than all other subsets (low/low, low/high, high/low) which did not significantly differ among each other. The findings contradict: (1) associative theories predicting positive monotonic relationships between memory strength and learning; and (2) non-monotonic plasticity hypothesis (NMPH), aiming at generalizing the non-monotonic relationship between a neuron’s excitation level and its synaptic strength to broad neural networks. We propose a dualistic neuropsychological model of memory consolidation that mimics the global activity in two large resting-state networks (RSNs), the default mode network (DMN) and the task-positive-network (TPN). Based on this model, we suggest that incongruence and congruence between vividness and familiarity reflect, respectively, competition and synergy between DMN and TPN activity. We argue that competition or synergy between these RSNs at the time of stimulus encoding disproportionately influences long term semantic memory consolidation in healthy controls. These findings could assist in developing neurophenomenological markers of core memory deficits currently hypothesized to be shared across multiple psychopathological conditions.

Normative data for Chinese-English paired associates.

Paired-associate learning is one of the most commonly used paradigms to study human memory. In many of these studies, participants are typically told to learn foreign language-English translations, such as Swahili-English or Lithuanian-English pairs. One limitation of these currently available foreign language-English translation norms is that their foreign languages are based on the alphabetic writing system, thereby preventing researchers from generalizing their findings to languages based on logographic writing systems. In the present study we collected normative data for 160 Chinese-English word pairs. Participants completed three study-test cycles, followed by metacognitive judgments on their learning experience. For each pair, we report recall performance, recall latency, ease of learning, and judgments of learning. A simultaneous multiple regression analysis with frequency (of both the English word and the Chinese character), word length (English), and number of strokes (Chinese) as predictors revealed that a greater number of strokes (or higher visual complexity) for the Chinese characters predicted lower target recall.

Item repetition and retrieval processes in cued recall: Analysis of recall-latency distributions.

The SAM (search of associative memory) model provides a unified account of accuracy effects, assuming that retrieval is a cue-dependent two-stage process of sampling and recovery, which depends on the strength of items relative to all others and on that item associated with the sampling trace, respectively. On the other hand, the relative strength model uniquely provides latency predictions, assuming that recall latency is determined solely by relative strength (similar to the sampling rule in SAM): Latency should remain unchanged for strong and weak items in pure lists, but will be shorter for strong items than for weak items in mixed lists. To test the predictions, the present study examined accuracy and latency distributions, which were fit with the ex-Gaussian, using item repetition as a means of strengthening. Massed versus spaced repetitions were used where repetitions were either cue-target pairs or cue alone. When repetitions were spaced in mixed lists, accuracy and latency both increased with cue-target repetitions, relative to cue-only repetitions, and slow recall for cue-target repetitions was due to initially nonretrievable items. However, even after successful recall on a pretest, cue-target repetitions led to an increase in latency in pure lists. These findings are difficult to reconcile with relative-strength explanations of latency. They indeed suggest that (1) separate traces are created for each repetition, (2) memory traces are updated if the item is retrieved (otherwise, new traces are stored), and (3) recovery plays a role in latency, which are discussed with the distinction between sampling and recovery of SAM.

Testing the primary and convergent retrieval model of recall: Recall practice produces faster recall success but also faster recall failure.

The primary and convergent retrieval (PCR) model assumes that the act of successful recall not only boosts associations between the item and retrieval cues but additionally strengthens associations within the item (i.e., between the features of an item), speeding the rate of information retrieval from memory. The latter effect is termed intra-item learning and is a unique benefit of recall practice (i.e., the "testing effect"). Prior work confirmed the prediction that recall practice produces faster subsequent recall than restudy practice even if accuracy is higher following restudy. The current study replicated this result, but also examined the downside of recall practice: that after a failure to recall during practice, participants will be faster in their failure to recall on a subsequent recall test. This prediction was confirmed in a multisession cued recall experiment that collected accuracy and recall latency measurements for no practice, recall practice, or restudy, with an immediate or delayed final test. The linear ballistic accumulator model was fit to latency distributions, and model comparison determined that these effects reflect differences in drift rates, as predicted by the PCR model.

How many dimensions underlie judgments of learning and recall redux: Consideration of recall latency reveals a previously hidden nonmonotonicity

Jang and Nelson (2005) used state-trace analysis to examine factors that affect judgments of learning (JOLs) given as a prediction of future cued recall success. Koriat’s (1997) cue-utilization framework predicted that intrinsic cues (e.g., item difficulty) would have approximately the same effects on recall as they would have on JOLs whereas extrinsic cues (e.g., number of presentations) would have greater effects on recall than on JOLs. In contradiction to the prediction from the cue-utilization framework, Jang and Nelson repeatedly found a monotonic state-trace solution, suggesting that a single latent variable (e.g., memory strength) explained both JOLs and recall. However, performance can be measured in many ways, and dissociations between JOLs and recall may arise from factors other than intrinsic and extrinsic cues. Thus, an apparent monotonic solution could be an artifact of the particular choice of behavioral measures or experimental manipulations. In light of this possibility, we reanalyzed Jang and Nelson’s data and conducted a new experiment, considering recall latency as well as recall accuracy and including the manipulation of immediate versus delayed JOLs. Even when additionally including both immediate- and delayed-JOL conditions, state-trace analysis with JOL magnitude and recall accuracy generally suggested a single latent variable, except for a single case in which immediate JOLs produced high overconfidence. However, the state-trace results with JOL magnitude and recall latency primarily revealed a nonmonotonic function, indicating that more than one latent variable is needed to explain the relationship between JOLs and recall.

Individual differences in working memory capacity and search efficiency.

In two experiments, we examined how various learning conditions impact the relation between working memory capacity (WMC) and memory search abilities. Experiment 1 employed a delayed free recall task with semantically related words to induce the buildup of proactive interference (PI) and revealed that the buildup of PI differentially impacted recall accuracy and recall latency for low-WMC and high-WMC individuals. Namely, the buildup of PI impaired recall accuracy and slowed recall latency for low-WMC individuals to a greater extent than what was observed for high-WMC individuals. To provide a circumstance in which previously learned information remains relevant over the course of learning, Experiment 2 required participants to complete a multitrial delayed free recall task with unrelated words. Results revealed that with increased practice with the same word list, WMC-related differences were eventually eliminated in interresponse times (IRTs) and recall accuracy, but not recall latency. Thus, despite still accumulating larger search sets, low-WMC individuals searched LTM as efficiently as high-WMC individuals. Collectively, these results are consistent with the notion that under normal free recall conditions, low-WMC individuals search LTM less efficiently than do high-WMC individuals because of their reliance on noisy temporal-contextual cues at retrieval. However, it appears that under conditions in which previously learned items remain relevant at recall, this tendency to rely on vague self-generated retrieval cues can actually facilitate the ability to accurately and quickly recall information.

Learning to recall: Examining recall latencies to test an intra-item learning theory of testing effects

We propose a new theory for the benefits of recall practice based on intra-item learning. On this account, retrieval cues produce an initial memory state (termed ‘primary retrieval’). However, this state is incomplete and insufficient for overt recall of the item. A subsequent process, termed ‘convergent retrieval’, fills in any missing information through intra-item associations, allowing recall of the item. Because this occurs in a staged manner, directional learning occurs from the initially retrieved features to the subsequently retrieved features; in contrast, restudy produces less intra-item learning because restudy provides all features simultaneously. This account of the testing effect makes unique predictions regarding recall latencies. We confirmed these predictions in two experiments, examining recall latencies in free recall and cued recall. Specifically, for a final test taken immediately after a practice test that did not include accuracy feedback, restudy produced higher accuracy than test practice, but, at the same time, test practice produced faster recall than restudy. In other words, a comparison between accuracy and recall latencies suggests a process dissociation for the benefits of each type of practice. Alternative accounts of these effects were ruled out: (1) response order analyses of the free recall experiment ruled out cue-target associations; and (2) a cue-switching manipulation in the cued recall experiment (recall practice with cue A, final recall with cue B) ruled out context-target associations. According to the proposed theory, intra-item learning is narrow in one sense (i.e., unique to the cues used during practice), but robust in another sense (i.e., learning how to recall the item).

Drift in Neural Population Activity Causes Working Memory to Deteriorate Over Time.

Short-term memories are thought to be maintained in the form of sustained spiking activity in neural populations. Decreases in recall precision observed with increasing number of memorized items can be accounted for by a limit on total spiking activity, resulting in fewer spikes contributing to the representation of each individual item. Longer retention intervals likewise reduce recall precision, but it is unknown what changes in population activity produce this effect. One possibility is that spiking activity becomes attenuated over time, such that the same mechanism accounts for both effects of set size and retention duration. Alternatively, reduced performance may be caused by drift in the encoded value over time, without a decrease in overall spiking activity. Human participants of either sex performed a variable-delay cued recall task with a saccadic response, providing a precise measure of recall latency. Based on a spike integration model of decision making, if the effects of set size and retention duration are both caused by decreased spiking activity, we would predict a fixed relationship between recall precision and response latency across conditions. In contrast, the drift hypothesis predicts no systematic changes in latency with increasing delays. Our results show both an increase in latency with set size, and a decrease in response precision with longer delays within each set size, but no systematic increase in latency for increasing delay durations. These results were quantitatively reproduced by a model based on a limited neural resource in which working memories drift rather than decay with time.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Rapid deterioration over seconds is a defining feature of short-term memory, but what mechanism drives this degradation of internal representations? Here, we extend a successful population coding model of working memory by introducing possible mechanisms of delay effects. We show that a decay in neural signal over time predicts that the time required for memory retrieval will increase with delay, whereas a random drift in the stored value predicts no effect of delay on retrieval time. Testing these predictions in a multi-item memory task with an eye movement response, we identified drift as a key mechanism of memory decline. These results provide evidence for a dynamic spiking basis for working memory, in contrast to recent proposals of activity-silent storage.

Targeting the Three Stages of Retrieval from Secondary Memory in a Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Working Memory Training Study

Working memory (WM) is the ability to temporarily store and retrieve a limited amount of information during complex cognitive activities, especially in the face of distraction. The dual-component model describes WM as including active maintenance in primary memory (PM) and cue-dependent search and retrieval from secondary memory (SM). Previously, researchers have found that WM training (WMT) fails to enhance SM capacity, a component that mediates the relationship between WM and fluid reasoning (gF). Thus, a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, randomized trial was conducted to elucidate whether retrieval from SM could be targeted using a two-component WMT regimen versus two control conditions: adaptive one-component WMT targeting solely PM capacity and non-adaptive one-component WMT. Participants were 174 adolescents, aged 10 to 13 years, who were assessed before, after, and 6 months following training. Retrieval from SM was measured using delayed free recall tasks, far transfer to gF was assessed with matrix reasoning and verbal inference tests, and far transfer to academic performance was assessed with reading and math tests. It was predicted that solely two-component WMT would enhance retrieval from SM and result in far transfer. ANCOVAs with pre-test scores as the covariate indicated that two-component participants increased total errors over controls. There were no significant differences between the groups on recall latency, total correct, or gF measures. The non-adaptive one-component group significantly improved on reading, although a drop in the other two groups drove the effect. Additional research is needed to elucidate whether theoretically motivated WMT can positively impact higher-level cognition through SM retrieval mechanisms.

Viewer Reminiscences on Portrayals about Persons with Disability in Indian Cinema

This exploratory study uses theme based group discussion, brain storming and focus group techniques on 27non-disabled multi-lingual college students to evoke their reminiscences on depiction of disability in Indian cinema. The corpus of audio/video recordings were subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis by three independent mutually blinded observers for latency, duration or time lag of respondent recall, dominant content or themes, attitudinal valence, perceived cliche and stereotypes about disability in cinema. Response analysis of attributed features for the film characters with disability was undertaken on major themes. The typical 'pity- sympathy' dimension of viewing the 'hero' as protagonist afflicted with mental illness is the most remembered depiction by female respondents. The most frequently evoked images, themes, language and terminology continue to reflect dismal, negative, struggling, anguished or aggrieved stereotype of contemporary cinema representation on persons with disabilities. These findings on commercial Indian movies are discussed with implications and justification for greater in-depth systematic research in this area.

The influence of encoding manipulations on the dynamics of free recall.

In three experiments, the influence of various encoding manipulations on the dynamics of free recall were investigated. In Experiment 1, increasing study time increased the number of items recalled with no change in recall latency. In Experiment 2, a levels-of-processing manipulation increased the number of items recalled with no change in recall latency. Finally, in Experiment 3, massed presentations of items increased the number of items recalled with no change in recall latency; however, spaced presentations of items increased both the number of items recalled and recall latency. These results suggest that some encoding manipulations serve to increase the absolute strength of items, whereas other encoding manipulations create copies of target items. In both cases, the number of items recalled is increased, but differences arise in recall latency. These results point to the importance of examining both the number of items recalled and recall latency as means of better understanding encoding and retrieval processes that lead to successful remembering.

Long–term spatial memory and morphological changes in hippocampus of Wistar rats exposed to smoke from Carica papaya leaves

To investigate the effects of smoking of dried leaves of Carica papaya (pawpaw) based on ethnopharmacological information which indicated that smoking of papaya leaves could influence motor performance and learning. Twenty-four rats were used for the study, and were grouped into four groups. Groups 1 served as the control (not exposed to papaya leaves smoke), while Groups 2, 3 and 4 were exposed to smoke from 6.25 g, 12.50 g and 18.75 g of dry pawpaw leaves respectively in a smoking chamber twice daily for 21 d with each exposure lasting for 3 min. Lastly, hippocampus was harvested in each group for histological study. The results showed that there were significant (P<0.05) increases in mean of recall latencies of long-term spatial memory in the animal administered the high dose while the other groups had significantly (P<0.05) lower frequencies. Histological investigation showed signs of mild neural degeneration in high dose group and hypochromic appearance of the Nissl substance in all treated groups. In conclusion, the findings from this study has demonstrated that smoking of papaya leaves has the ability to maintain an intact long-term spatial memory at all doses but retrieving such memory is faster with the low and medium dosages.

The role of emotional engagement and mood valence in retrieval fluency of mood incongruent autobiographical memory

Background: Retrieval of opposite mood autobiographical memories serves emotion regulation, yet the factors influencing this ability are poorly understood.Methods: Three studies examined the effect of mood valence (sad vs. happy) and degree of emotional engagement on fluency of mood incongruent retrieval by manipulating emotional engagement and examining the effect of emotional film clips on the Fluency of Autobiographical Memory task.Results: Following both sad and happy film clips, participants who received emotionally engaging instructions exhibited a greater recall latency of the first opposite mood memory, and had generated less such memories than those receiving emotionally disengaging instructions (Studies 1 and 2). A happy mood induction resulted in recollection of fewer mood incongruent memories compared to a sad mood induction. Providing emotionally engaging instructions was found to specifically hinder mood incongruent retrieval, without impairing mood congruent retrieval (Study 3).Conclusion: High emotional engagement seems to impair the retrieval of mood incongruent memories. Being in a happy mood may also partially impair such retrieval. Implications regarding emotional regulation are discussed.

Focusing the search: Proactive and retroactive interference and the dynamics of free recall.

Targeting information in long-term memory is an important cognitive ability, but one that is not well understood. In this study, 4 experiments were conducted to examine the influence of proactive and retroactive interference on memory targeting. Participants were given either 1 or 2 lists and asked to recall List 1, List 2, or in some cases both lists. Multiple dependent measures were explored including the proportion of items recalled, number of intrusions output, and recall latency to arbitrate between 4 extant accounts of memory targeting. In general, recalling either List 1 or List 2 resulted in lower probability of recall, recall of more intrusions, and longer recall latencies compared to when recalling a list alone, suggesting both proactive and retroactive interference. These results suggest that long-term memory targeting is guided by noisy temporal-contextual cues (unless other salient cues are present) that activate both relevant and irrelevant memoranda that are then subjected to a postretrieval monitoring process.

Evidence for noisy contextual search: Examining the dynamics of list-before-last recall

The dynamics of free recall in the list-before-last task were examined in the current study. List-length was manipulated and probability of recall was influenced by target list-length but not by intervening list-length. Participants also performed free recall on control lists matched on target list-length. Critically, list-before-last recall was worse than recall on the control list, suggesting that the mere presence of an intervening list reduced recall. An examination of intrusion errors suggested that participants recalled both prior and intervening list intrusions and retrieval was influenced by the length of the intervening list-length. Finally, an examination of recall latency suggested that target list-length, but not intervening list-length, influenced recall dynamics. However, recall latency in list-before-last recall was longer than in the control lists, suggesting that the mere presence of intervening list influenced recall latency. Taken together, the results are consistent with the notion that in list-before-last recall participants rely on noisy contextual cues that activate both target and non-target items, leading to an increase in their search sets.