Ready-to-eat Cereal Breakfast Research Articles

Breakfast characteristics and its association with daily micronutrients intake – A systematic review and meta-analysis

AbstractIntroductionBreakfast (BF) is widely recognized as an important component of a healthy lifestyle and represents an important source of key nutrients in the diet for both adults and children. Furthermore, BF consumption seems to be associated with a better intake of vitamins and minerals in both, children and adolescents.The aim of this study was to investigate the associations between frequency and characteristics of BF consumption and its relation with micronutrients intake.Material and MethodsAn exhaustive search was carried out in three datasets in March 2019. The search strategy used to identify the articles was as follow: breakfast, food beverages appetite regulation, child nutritional physiological phenomena, diet, digestion, eating, feeding behavior, gastrointestinal absorption, hunger, nutritional requirements, nutritional status, nutritive value, breakfast skipping, meal skipping, fasting, food preferences, diet therapy, child, preschool, adolescent, breakfast skipping and meal skipping. Two independent reviewers performed the data extraction and assessed their quality and risk of bias following the PRISMA methodology and using the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Meta-analysis was performed comparing results based on type of BF: skip BF, Ready To Eat Cereal (RTEC) BF and other types of BF. DerSimonian and Laird estimators using random effects models were applied for continuous data. Effect sizes were calculated for each outcome.ResultsOut of 3105 articles, we selected 30 full-text articles for inclusion and 7 were considered for meta-analysis.. Children who usually skip BF had significantly lower daily intake of vitamin A (SMD, -10.407; 95%CI: -14.147, -6.667) and vitamin C (SMD, -4.127; 95%CI: -5.091, -3.162) than BF consumers. The intake of vitamin B1 (SMD, -16.378; 95%CI: -29.110, -3.647) and vitamin B2 [SMD, -14.757; 95%CI: -20.247, -9.268] was lower in skippers than RTEC BF consumers.Regarding to minerals, children who usually consume BF had significantly higher daily consumption of Calcium (SMD, -7.034; 95%CI: -9.029, -5.040), Iron (SMD, -6.552; 95%CI: -9.242, -3.861) and Sodium (SMD, -3.395; 95%CI: -5.554, -1.236) than BF skippers. The intake of Magnesium (SMD, -10.903; 95%CI: -18.078, -3.729) and Potassium (SMD, -6.972; 95%CI: -10.689, -3.254) was higher in RTEC BF consumers than BF skippers.DiscussionEvidence suggested that BF consumption and RTEC breakfast consumption seems to be associated with better micronutrient intake

Eating Ready-to-Eat Cereal for Breakfast is Positively Associated With Daily Nutrient Intake, but Not Weight, in Mexican-American Children and Adolescents

Ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) has been associated with improved nutrient intake and weight status, but intake has not been studied in Mexican-American (MA) children. The objective of this study was to assess whether nutrient intake, mean adequacy ratio (MAR), and weight were associated with classification of 3 breakfast consumption groups: breakfast skippers, RTEC breakfast consumers, and other breakfast (OB) consumers. Data on MA children (6–12 years; n = 1060) and adolescents (13–18 years; n = 1395) who participated in the 1999-2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were analyzed. One 24-hour diet recall was used to calculate nutrient intakes and MAR for micronutrients. Weight, body mass index, and waist circumference were evaluated. For statistical analyses, between-group differences in mean covariate-adjusted nutrient intake, unadjusted MAR, and unadjusted weights were examined. Nine percent of children and 28% of adolescents skipped breakfast; 34% and 22% of those age groups consumed RTEC breakfasts, respectively. Children who consumed an RTEC breakfast had higher intakes of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, calcium, iron, and zinc than did children in the OB consumption group and breakfast skippers. Ready-to-eat cereal breakfast consumers also had a higher MAR and higher intakes of phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium than did breakfast skippers but not than OB consumers. Ready-to-eat cereal breakfast consumers had lower intakes of total fat, polyunsaturated fatty acid, and cholesterol than did OB consumers. In adolescents, compared with breakfast skippers or OB consumers, RTEC breakfast consumers had a higher MAR and higher intakes of vitamins A, B6, and B12; thiamin; riboflavin; niacin; folate; phosphorus; iron; and zinc. Carbohydrate intake was higher in RTEC breakfast consumers than in skippers or OB consumers. Children who consumed OB had lower mean body mass index and waist circumference than did those children who skipped breakfast. In MA children and adolescents, RTEC breakfast consumers had improved nutrient intake compared with breakfast skippers and OB consumers, and RTEC should be encouraged as a convenient, low-fat, nutrient-dense breakfast option.

The intake of ready to eat cereals in breakfast is associated with fewer intakes of 24 h unsaturated fats but not of fruits, vegetables or fiber in Mexican children

IntroductionThe consumption of Ready to eat cereal (RTEC) at breakfast has been associated with a better dietary habits and healthy life styles.ObjectiveTo describe the macronutrient intake, food consumed with breakfast and healthy lifestyles in Mexican children by category of RTEC: Breakfast RTEC, Non‐RTEC breakfast and breakfast skippers (BS).MethodsDietary data were collected from a 24h recall. We examined fruits and vegetables, fiber, saturated and unsaturated fat intakes, screen time, and physical activity. Statistical analyses were adjusted by the survey design.ResultsPreschoolers (11.5%), scholars (10.2%) and adolescents (5.7%) had RTEC breakfast. The foods most frequently consumed with RTEC were milk sugar and fruit. No differences between adequacy of fruits, vegetable and fiber were found by RTEC categories. The 24 h intake of saturated (20.5g vs 17.8g, p<0.05) or unsaturated fats (28.3 vs 23.9 g, p<0.05) was greater in preschoolers breakfasting non‐RTEC than those eating RTEC or non‐breakfast. The 24h intakes of unsaturated fats was lower in scholar girls (35.5 g vs 39.3 g & 41.8g, p<0.05) and adolescents (40.0g vs 45.5g, & 52.0g respectively, p<0.05) RTEC consumers thannon‐RTEC or BS individuals. Adolescents that had breakfastcomparedwith non‐RTEC or BS individuals had the same physical activity and less screen time.ConclusionThe RTEC intake is associated with fewer intakes of 24 h fat intakes, without differences in the intake of fruits, vegetables, fiber, physical activity and screen time.

Effects of two dietary fibers as part of ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) breakfasts on perceived appetite and gut hormones in overweight women.

The effects of an enzyme-hydrolyzed arabinoxylan from wheat (AXOS) versus an intact arabinoxylan from flax (FLAX) added to a ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) on the postprandial appetitive, hormonal, and metabolic responses in overweight women (BMI 25.0–29.9 kg/m2) were evaluated. Subsequent meal energy intake was also assessed. Two randomized, double-blind, crossover design studies were completed. For trial 1, the participants consumed the following RTEC breakfast, matched for total weight and varied in energy content: low-fiber (LF, 4 g); high-fiber (HF, 15 g) as either AXOS or FLAX. For trial 2, the participants consumed LF, HF-AXOS, and HF-FLAX RTECs but also consumed another LF breakfast that was isocaloric (LF-iso) to that of the HF breakfasts. Perceived appetite and blood samples (trial 2 only) were assessed before and after breakfast. An ad libitum lunch was offered 4 h post-breakfast. No differences in postprandial appetite responses were observed among any breakfasts in either trial. The HF-AXOS and HF-FLAX led to increased postprandial GLP-1 and peptide YY (PYY) concentrations vs. LF-iso. No differences were observed in lunch meal energy intake among breakfast meals in either trial. Collectively, these data suggest that 15 g of low molecular weight fiber added to RTECs did not affect perceived appetite or subsequent energy intake despite differences in satiety hormone signaling in overweight females.

Breakfast consumption is positively associated with nutrient adequacy in Canadian children and adolescents.

Although breakfast is associated with more favourable nutrient intake profiles in children, limited data exist on the impact of breakfast on nutrient adequacy and the potential risk of excessive intakes. Accordingly, we assessed differences in nutrient intake and adequacy among breakfast non-consumers, consumers of breakfasts with ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) and consumers of other types of breakfasts. We used cross-sectional data from 12,281 children and adolescents aged 4-18 years who took part in the nationally representative Canadian Community Health Survey, 2004. Mean nutrient intakes (obtained using a multiple-pass 24 h recall method) were compared among the breakfast groups using covariate-adjusted regression analysis. Usual nutrient intake distributions, generated using the National Cancer Institute method, were used to determine the prevalence of nutrient inadequacy or the potential risk of excessive intakes from food sources alone and from the combination of food plus supplements. Of these Canadian children, 10% were breakfast non-consumers, 33% were consumers of RTEC breakfasts and 57% were consumers of other types of breakfasts. Non-consumption of breakfast increased with age (4-8 years: 2%; 9-13 years: 9%; 14-18 years: 18%). Breakfast consumers had higher covariate-adjusted intakes of energy, many nutrients and fibre, and lower fat intakes. The prevalence of nutrient inadequacy for vitamin D, Ca, Fe and Mg (from food alone or from the combination of food plus supplements) was highest in breakfast non-consumers, intermediate in consumers of other types of breakfasts and lowest in consumers of RTEC breakfast. For vitamin A, P and Zn, breakfast non-consumers had a higher prevalence of nutrient inadequacy than both breakfast groups. The potential risk of excessive nutrient intakes was low in all groups. Efforts to encourage and maintain breakfast consumption in children and adolescents are warranted.

Nutrient intakes among the ten most common breakfast food types (810.6)

Prior research on nutrient intakes by breakfast habits often includes ‘Other breakfasts’ which encompass a wide variety of foods. The objective was to assess nutrient intakes among consumers of the ten most common breakfast food types. The USDA Food and Nutrition Database (4.1, 5.0) used to process NHANES dietary data intake was analyzed for mean nutrient intakes. The identified food types included: ready‐to‐eat cereal (RTEC); Egg‐based; Yeast Breads; Pastries; Cooked Cereal; Fruit‐based; Pancakes/Waffles; Meat‐based; Muffins/quick breads; or Other (coffee drinks, juice, or meal‐replacement shakes). In adults (19+ years), the predominant breakfasts were Other, RTEC, and Egg‐based representing 25.5, 21.8, and 17.6%, respectively. Egg‐based breakfasts were associated with higher total energy intakes than RTEC and Other (2233 versus 2030 and 1964 kcal). RTEC and Cooked Cereal consumers had the highest fiber and lowest cholesterol and fat intakes along with Fruit breakfasts. Compared to Egg‐based and Meat‐based breakfasts, RTEC breakfast was associated with greater intakes of vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, B6, B9, B12, C, D and minerals magnesium and iron. Egg‐based and Meat‐based breakfasts were lower in total sugar intakes than RTEC (105 and 107 vs 122g, respectively), but higher in total calories (2232 and 2293 vs 2030 kCal, respectively), protein, total fat, cholesterol, sat fat, MUFA, PUFA and sodium (P<0.05).Grant Funding Source: Funding by Kellogg Company

Consumption of Breakfast and the Type of Breakfast Consumed Are Positively Associated with Nutrient Intakes and Adequacy of Canadian Adults

Few studies have assessed the associations between breakfast intake and nutrient adequacy [where inadequacy reflects prevalence of usual intakes below the estimated average requirement (EAR) and potential excess reflects the prevalence above the tolerable upper intake level (UL)]. This study examined associations among breakfast, nutrient intakes, and nutrient adequacy in Canadian adults. Respondents aged ≥19 y in the Canadian Community Health Survey 2.2 (n = 19,913) were classified as breakfast nonconsumers (11%), ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) breakfast consumers (20%), or other breakfast consumers (69%). Nutrient intakes from food (24-h recall) and the prevalence of usual intakes below the EAR and above the UL from food alone and from food plus supplements were compared by breakfast group. Usual intake distributions were estimated using the National Cancer Institute method. Breakfast consumers, and to a greater extent RTEC breakfast consumers, had significantly higher intakes of fiber and several vitamins and minerals than breakfast nonconsumers. Compared with nonconsumers, RTEC and other breakfast consumers had significantly lower prevalences below the EARs for vitamin A and magnesium. The prevalences below the EARs of these nutrients and calcium, thiamin, vitamin D, and iron were significantly lower with RTEC breakfasts than with other breakfasts. Similar patterns were observed from food alone compared with food plus supplements. Breakfast consumption did not affect prevalence above the UL based on food sources, although based on food plus supplements, breakfast consumers had slightly higher proportions that were above the UL than nonconsumers for several nutrients. Breakfast, especially an RTEC breakfast, is associated with improved nutrient adequacy and does not meaningfully affect prevalence above the UL.

The Association Between Body Metrics and Breakfast Food Choice in Children

Purpose. Ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) consumption has been associated with better nutrient intakes and anthropometric end points compared with breakfast skipping and other breakfasts. Our objective was to evaluate RTEC breakfast type (presweetened and nonpresweetened) on physiological end points. Methods. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2006 data were analyzed using SUDAAN. Participants (n = 6729; 2-17 years) were separated into groups based on breakfast habits as follows: presweetened RTEC (PS-RTEC); nonpresweetened RTEC (NPS-RTEC); breakfast skippers (SKs); other breakfasts (OBs). Presweetened was defined as ≥9 g of added sugars per serving. Results. No differences were found for weight, BMI, waist circumference, blood pressure, or lipids in children consuming PS-RTECs or NPS-RTECs. In children 12 to 17 years old, BMI and percentage of children overweight or obese were lower for consumers of PS-RTECs at breakfast compared with SK or OB groups. Skinfolds were significantly lower in PS-RTEC versus SK or OB groups. SK and OB children (12-17 years old) were nearly twice as likely to be overweight or obese as compared with children consuming PS-RTECs (odds ratio of 1.87 and 2.12, respectively). Conclusion. Consumption of breakfast cereal with higher or lower added sugar was not associated with unhealthy physiological end points in children. The study confirms the association between RTEC consumption and healthier body weights compared with children and adolescents skipping or consuming a non-RTEC breakfast.

Breakfast and Ready‐to‐Eat Cereal Consumption is Associated with Improved Markers of Cardio‐metabolic Health in Adults: Results from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001 – 2008

The objective of this study was to examine the association of breakfast, in particular ready to eat cereal (RTEC) consumption, with cardio‐metabolic health measures in adults 19–50 years (n=9292) using NHANES, 2001–2008. Using the first dietary recall, breakfast consumption was self‐defined by participants (n=6848) and any amount of RTEC for breakfast defined RTEC consumption (n=1148). Least square means ± SE were determined by regression analysis and odds ratios for risk factors were determined by logistic regression with adjustment for covariates. Compared to other breakfasts, RTEC breakfast was associated with a lower incidence (%±SE) of elevated BP (21±0.2 v 25±0.1, p<0.05), elevated blood glucose (27±0.2 v 34±0.1, p<0.003) and metabolic syndrome (20±0.1 v 25±0.1, p<0.007). RTEC breakfast was associated with lower LDL‐cholesterol (110.8±1.8 v 116.8±1.4, p<0.02) and lower fasting glucose (96.8±0.6 v 98.7±0.7, p<0.03) compared to breakfast skippers. RTEC breakfast consumers were also less likely to have elevated BP (OR=0.64; CI=0.50–0.82), elevated triglycerides (OR=0.69; CI=0.52–0.93), elevated fasting glucose (OR=0.57; CI=0.43–0.77), or metabolic syndrome (OR=0.50; CI=0.40–0.64). Consumers of other breakfasts showed a similar risk reduction, but odds ratios were slightly higher (0.70–0.85) than for RTEC (0.40–0.59). These data suggest breakfast consumption, particularly RTEC, is associated with improved markers of cardio‐metabolic health in adults. (Supported by Kellogg Company)

Ready-to-Eat Cereal Breakfasts Are Associated with Improved Nutrient Intake and Dietary Adequacy but Not Body Mass Index in Black Adolescents

The goal of this study was to determine whether nutrient intake, dietary adequacy, and weight status were associated with type of breakfast consumption: skipping breakfast, consuming ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) at breakfast, or consuming other types of foods at breakfast. Data from black adolescents 13 to 18 years of age (n = 988) participating in the 1999-2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were used in a secondary data analysis. Thirty-seven percent of black adolescents skipped breakfast, 19% consumed RTEC at breakfast, and 44% consumed other breakfasts. RTEC breakfast and other breakfast consumers had higher mean energy intakes than breakfast skippers (P ≤ .05). After adjusting for gender and energy intake, RTEC breakfast consumers had higher intakes of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, potassium, and vitamins A, B6, and B12 than breakfast skippers and other breakfast consumers (P ≤ .05). RTEC breakfast consumers had the highest mean adequacy ratio, followed by other breakfast consumers, then breakfast skippers (P ≤ .05). Those consuming RTEC at breakfast had lower mean body mass index (P ≤ .05) and waist circumference (P ≤ .05) than breakfast skippers; however, there was no difference between those consuming RTEC and other breakfasts. If confirmed in prospective studies, consuming a breakfast meal with RTEC may be a useful strategy to encourage in black adolescents as a way to improve nutrient intake and dietary adequacy without increasing weight.

Are breakfast consumption patterns associated with weight status and nutrient adequacy in African-American children?

The objective of the present study was to assess whether weight status, nutrient intake and dietary adequacy were associated with breakfast consumption patterns. A representative sample of the US population was used in a secondary analysis of nutrient intake/diet quality and weight status by breakfast consumption patterns. The 1999-2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). The study sample included African-American (AA) children aged 1-12 years (n 1389). Forty-five per cent of children aged 1-5 years and 38 % of those aged 6-12 years consumed ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) at breakfast; while 7.4 % and 16.9 % in those age groups skipped breakfast, respectively. The lowest mean BMI (P <or= 0.05) and mean waist circumference (P <or= 0.05) was found in children 1-12 years of age who consumed RTEC at breakfast compared with other consumption groups. RTEC breakfast consumers had the highest mean intakes of vitamins A, B6 and B12, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, folate, Ca, Fe and Zn (P <or= 0.05) and the highest Mean Adequacy Ratio (P <or= 0.05). RTEC breakfast consumers also had the highest intake of carbohydrates and total sugars, and the lowest intakes of total fat (P <or= 0.05). Consuming RTEC at breakfast was associated with improved weight and nutrient adequacy in AA children. AA children in all breakfast categories still had mean intakes of most nutrients below recommended levels. The implications are that consuming a breakfast meal should be encouraged in these children, and that RTEC at breakfast provides important nutrients and may help promote a healthy weight.

The association of ready to eat cereal (RTEC) at breakfast with diet quality and adiposity in African‐American (AA) and Hispanic‐American (HA) children 1 to 18 years: Results from NHANES, 1999–2002

The aim of this study was to examine the association of an RTEC breakfast with diet quality and weight of AA (n=2377) and HA (n=3236) 1 to 18 y in NHANES, 1999–2002. Three breakfast groups were: skippers, RTEC, and other breakfast (OB); age groups were 1–5, 6–12, 13–18 y. Mean adequacy ratio (MAR) score was the average percentage of the Estimated Average Requirement obtained from 24 hour recall intake of vitamins A, E, C, B1, B2, B6, B12; niacin; folate; phosphorus; magnesium; iron; and zinc. MAR and weight measures (mean±SE) of breakfast groups were compared using SUDAAN. Age was related to skipping and type of breakfast: for 1–5 v. 6–12 v. 13–18y, 7.4% v.16.9% v.36.8% of AA, and 4.9% v. 8.9% v. 28.3% of HA skipped; 45% v. 38% v. 19.4% of AA, and 40.5% v. 33.9% v. 22.1% of HA ate RTEC. MAR for AA was highest in RTEC (97.3 [1–5], 94.7 [6–12], 92.1 [13–18y]) (p&lt;0.05). For HA 1–5y, MAR was higher for RTEC (97.2±0.2) than OB (95.7±0.4), but not skippers (92.8±2.1); in HA 6–12y, MAR of RTEC (95.4±0.6) was higher than skippers (84.9±1.3); in HA 13–18y MAR of RTEC (91.1±0.5) was highest (p&lt;0.05). In AA and HA 2–18y there were no differences in z‐score of BMI‐for age; in AA 2–18y only waist circumference (cm) was lowest in RTEC (66.5±0.3) v skippers (68.7±0.7) or OB (68.2±0.4). There were ethnic differences in breakfast consumption patterns, and adiposity of 2–18y AA and HA; diet quality improved with RTEC in both groups. Support: USDA &amp; Kellogg's.

Ready‐to‐eat cereal consumption improves nutrient intake profiles of 5 shortfall nutrients in U.S. children

We aimed to study the impact of ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) on nutrient intake of five shortfall nutrients in the diets of American children: dietary fiber, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and vitamin E. Dietary data from 3964 children aged 4–13y in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1999-2002) were analyzed according to breakfast consumption pattern. Consumption of RTEC was associated with higher mean daily intake levels of these 5 nutrients compared to breakfast skippers (RTEC consumers vs. breakfast skippers in age 4–8 y group -fiber: 12.4±0.26 g vs. 9.2±0.49 g; calcium: 1006±22 mg vs. 706±45 mg; magnesium: 229±4.1 mg vs. 157±7.6 mg; potassium: 2276±35 mg vs.1662±88 mg; and vitamin E: 6.0±0.23 mg vs. 4.8±0.35 mg. RTEC consumers vs. breakfast skippers in age 9–13 y group -fiber: 13.8±0.39 g vs. 11.2±0.53 g; calcium: 1105±25 mg vs. 799±60 mg; magnesium: 247±6.1 mg vs. 196±11 mg; potassium: 2413±65 mg vs.1950±121 mg; and vitamin E: 6.4±0.34 mg vs. 6.1±0.29mg). With the exception of vitamin E, children who ate RTEC breakfast had higher mean daily intakes of nutrients than other breakfast food eaters. The data suggest that RTEC are important sources of these key nutrients for children.

Ready‐to‐eat cereal (RTEC) consumption is associated with a lower risk of being overweight in children and adolescents in NHANES, 1999–2002.

This study examined the relationship of breakfast and RTE cereal (RTEC) consumption on body weight status in US children and adolescents. Dietary records (24 hour recall) and body weight measures were gathered from interviews with 3964 children aged 4–13 y and 2720 adolescents aged 14–18 y in the NHANES, 1999–2002. RTEC consumers showed significantly lower BMI and waist circumference (WC) than breakfast skippers (RTEC consumers vs. breakfast skippers: BMI, 19.1±0.19 vs. 22.5±0.28, p<0.01; WC, 66.9±0.52cm vs. 77.5±0.83cm, p<0.01). RTEC consumption was associated with lower z scores for BMI (0.35 ±0.06 vs. 0.59±0.06, p<0.01) and weight (0.39± 0.05 vs. 0.61± 0.06, p<0.01) as compared to breakfast skipping. RTEC breakfast consumers showed consistently lower body weight measures than other breakfast food eaters (BMI, 19.1±0.19 vs. 20.1± 0.11, p<0.01; WC, 66.9±0.52 vs. 69.6± 0.31, p<0.01). RTEC consumers also showed the highest daily intakes of fiber and the lowest energy intakes from fat. The data indicated that RTEC consumption may be an important component of maintaining a healthy weight in children and adolescents.

Is Consumption of Breakfast Associated with Body Mass Index in US Adults?

Objective To test the hypothesis that breakfast consumption is associated with weight status measured by body mass index in US adults. Design Analyses of data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2000. Participants/Setting Men and women aged ≥19 years (N=4,218), excluding pregnant and/or lactating women. Statistical Analyses Performed SAS (release 8.1, 2000, SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC) and SUDAAN (release 8.0.2, 2003, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC) software were used to calculate sample-weighted means, standard errors, and population percentages of breakfast consumers. Multiple logistic and linear regression models, with controls for covariates, were used to determine the predictability of body mass index from breakfast consumption and from inclusion of ready-to-eat cereal (RTEC) in the breakfast meal. Results Breakfast consumers were more likely than breakfast nonconsumers to be older, female, white, nonsmokers, regular exercisers, and trying to control their weight. For women, daily energy intake was higher among breakfast consumers than among breakfast nonconsumers; for both men and women, energy intake from fat among RTEC breakfast consumers was significantly lower than among non-RTEC breakfast consumers, whereas energy from carbohydrate among RTEC breakfast consumers was significantly higher than among non-RTEC breakfast consumers. For women, the odds ratios for BMI ≥25 were lower for breakfast consumers (odds ratio=0.76) and RTEC breakfast consumers (odds ratio=0.70) compared with breakfast nonconsumers and non-RTEC breakfast consumers, respectively, after adjusting the models for covariates. When RTEC consumption was added as a covariate, breakfast consumers no longer exhibited significantly lower odds ratios compared with breakfast nonconsumers. Furthermore, regression analyses supported an inverse association between RTEC breakfast consumption and body mass index in women (regression coefficient=–0.37, P<.01) after adjusting for covariates. Conclusions When we document the association of breakfast consumption with lower prevalence of overweight and obesity, types of meal should be considered as an important determinant. RTEC breakfast consumption, associated with a desirable macronutrient profile for preventing obesity, predicted weight status in women, but not in men. In addition to sex difference in the association of breakfast consumption and RTEC breakfast consumption with lower prevalence of overweight, the effects of physiological variables and health-related behaviors on the relationship between total and RTEC intake at breakfast and weight status, remain to be established.

Efficiency of breakfast consumption patterns of ninth graders: Nutrient-to-cost comparisons

Objective To assess the efficiency of breakfast consumption patterns in terms of nutrient-to-cost comparisons.Design Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls were collected and food items named were priced (prices from local grocery stores and restaurants were averaged). Three breakfast consumption groups were identified: restaurant foods (fast foods), ready-to-eat (RTE) cereal, and other foods.Subjects Subjects consisted of 567 ninth-grade students (57% female, 86% white, mean age 14.8 years) in New Orleans, La.Statistical analyses Analysis of variance techniques were used to test statistical significance for total nutrient intake levels, intake levels of nutrients per 1,000kcal, and nutrient intake levels per dollar spent. Groupings were determined using the Duncan test or pairwise comparisons.Results Five percent of students ate a fast-food breakfast, 30% ate RTE cereal, and 65% ate other breakfasts. The mean cost of the breakfast meals was significantly (P<.0001) higher for the fast-food breakfast than for the RTE cereal breakfast and the other breakfast (fast>other=RTE). For every dollar spent, the RTE cereal and other breakfasts provided significantly more energy, carbohydrate, fiber, sugar, and protein than the fast-food breakfast. The other breakfast provided significantly (P<.001) more total and saturated fat per dollar than the fast-food or RTE cereal breakfasts. The RTE cereal breakfast provided significantly (P<.001) more, per dollar spent, of folic acid, iron, niacin, vitamins A and D, and zinc than the other 2 breakfast meals.Applications The importance consumers place on taste, cost, and convenience continues to influence types of foods consumed. Yet, their food choices may not be as efficient in terms of the nutrients obtained per dollar spent. With the increasing demands being placed on families and the decreasing amount of time being spent on food preparation, nutrition education programs should continue to promote a higher level of efficient food choices. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002;102:226-233.