Reading Progress Research Articles

Reading First in Pennsylvania: Achievement Findings after Five Years

This article reports on the student achievement outcomes for third graders in Reading First (RF) schools in Pennsylvania over the five years of implementation for the group as a whole, for disaggregated groups of third graders, and for third graders who received reading instruction in RF schools for one, two, and three years. We also present a school-level growth measure for representing school improvement and for characterizing the success of RF in Pennsylvania. Results indicate that third-grade students in these RF schools are making substantially more progress in third-grade reading than are students in other schools in Pennsylvania, there is an increase of nearly 24% of students performing at proficient or advanced level over the five years, and the students in the below basic range on the achievement measure declined nearly 18%. Further, the disaggregated data show that the achievement gap, though not closed, was reduced for all groups of third graders. Finally, nearly 80% of the RF schools were successful in accomplishing the two goals of Reading First: an increase in the percentage of students at grade level, and a reduction in the percentage of students who were seriously below grade level.

Phonological awareness, vocabulary, and reading in deaf children with cochlear implants.

To explore the phonological awareness skills of deaf children with cochlear implants (CIs) and relationships with vocabulary and reading development. Forty-three deaf children with implants who were between 5 and 15 years of age were tested; 21 had been implanted at around 2.5 years of age (Early CI group), and 22 had been implanted at around 5 years of age (Late CI group). Two control groups-a deaf hearing aided group (16 children) and a typically developing group of hearing children (19 children)-were also tested. All children received a battery of phonological processing tasks along with measures of reading, vocabulary, and speechreading. Analyses focus on deaf children within the normal IQ range (n = 53). Age at cochlear implantation had a significant effect on vocabulary and reading outcomes when quotient scores were calculated. Individual differences in age at implant, duration of fit, phonological development, vocabulary development, auditory memory, visual memory, and speech intelligibility were all strongly associated with progress in reading for the deaf implanted children. Patterns differed somewhat depending on whether quotient scores or standard scores were used. Cochlear implantation is associated with development of the oral language, auditory memory, and phonological awareness skills necessary for developing efficient word recognition skills. There is a benefit of earlier implantation.

Reading electronic books as a support for vocabulary, story comprehension and word reading in kindergarten and first grade

The effect of reading an electronic storybook (e-book) on Israeli children’s language and literacy was examined in kindergarten children (N=40; age 5:2–6:3) compared to first graders (N=50; age 6:3–7:4). The children in each age group were randomly assigned to two groups: an intervention group which read the e-book five times and a control group which was afforded the regular school program. Pre- and post-tests included vocabulary and word reading measures. Post-tests included story comprehension and production. Children who read the e-book exhibited significant progress in word meaning and word reading compared to the control group. Kindergarten children progressed in word reading more significantly than first graders across treatment groups. This could be explained by the ceiling effect of the first graders’ word reading level which did not leave much room for progress in this skill compared to the kindergarten children. No interaction was found between age and treatment groups. Kindergarten children exhibited a good level of story comprehension, similar to first graders, although their story production was lower. Implications for future research and education are discussed.

Universal Screening of Reading in Late Elementary School

Two curriculum-based measurement tools are commonly used to assess progress in reading in elementary school: R-CBM and CBM maze. R-CBM is used in practice more frequently than CBM maze is, although CBM maze is more time efficient to administer than R-CBM is. The technical adequacy of each of these measures has been reported in the literature; however, a comparative analysis of their technical adequacy has not been published. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the technical adequacy of R-CBM and CBM maze to inform their use in a universal screening program of reading in fourth and fifth grades. Results suggest evidence of short- and long-term alternate forms reliability, criterion validity, and predictive validity for both R-CBM and CBM maze, supporting the possibility that the two measures are comparable for use in universal screening at those grade levels.

Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children

Working memory plays a crucial role in supporting learning, with poor progress in reading and mathematics characterizing children with low memory skills. This study investigated whether these problems can be overcome by a training program designed to boost working memory. Children with low working memory skills were assessed on measures of working memory, IQ and academic attainment before and after training on either adaptive or non-adaptive versions of the program. Adaptive training that taxed working memory to its limits was associated with substantial and sustained gains in working memory, with age-appropriate levels achieved by the majority of children. Mathematical ability also improved significantly 6 months following adaptive training. These findings indicate that common impairments in working memory and associated learning difficulties may be overcome with this behavioral treatment.

The relative effects of group size on reading progress of older students with reading difficulties

This study reports findings on the relative effects from a yearlong secondary intervention contrasting large-group, small-group, and school-provided interventions emphasizing word study, vocabulary development, fluency, and comprehension with seventh- and eighth-graders with reading difficulties. Findings indicate that few statistically significant results or clinically significant gains were associated with group size or intervention. Findings also indicate that a significant acceleration of reading outcomes for seventh- and eighth-graders from high-poverty schools is unlikely to result from a 50 min daily class. Instead, the findings indicate, achieving this outcome will require more comprehensive models including more extensive intervention (e.g., more time, even smaller groups), interventions that are longer in duration (multiple years), and interventions that vary in emphasis based on specific students' needs (e.g., increased focus on comprehension or word study).

Reading electronic and printed books with and without adult instruction: effects on emergent reading

The effects of electronic book (e-book) and printed book reading on children’s emergent reading with and without adult instruction were investigated. One hundred twenty-eight 5- to 6-year-old kindergarten children from low SES families were randomly assigned to one of four groups (32 children each): (1) independently reading the e-book (EB); (2) reading the e-book with adult instruction (EBI); (3) reading the printed book with adult instruction (PBI); and (4) receiving the regular kindergarten program (control). The three intervention groups included four book-reading sessions each. Pre- and post-intervention emergent reading measures included concept about print (CAP), word reading, and phonological awareness. The results showed that the EBI group achieved greater progress in word reading and CAP than all other groups. The EBI group also achieved greater progress in phonological awareness than the EB and the control groups. Implications for future research and for educators are discussed.

Predicting Performance on High-Stakes Assessment for Proficient Students and Students At Risk With Oral Reading Fluency Growth

The current study examines the predictive relationship of Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills oral reading fluency (DORF) scores to high-stakes test performance. Data were collected from 423 students. The participants were divided into three groups based on the level of progress that was made from the fall to the spring benchmark period. A descriptive, nonexperimental design was followed by a quasiexperimental examination of the relations between progress measured by DORF and results of high-stakes testing. Results indicate that progress in oral reading is meaningful in terms of fluency and high-stakes outcomes. In addition, progress measured using oral reading fluency increases the chances of students with special education needs meeting standards on high-stakes tests. Implications of the findings are presented.

Does DIBELS Put Reading First?

Schools across the nation are responding to reading assessment mandates by turning to DIBELS (Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills), a program endorsed by the Federal Reading First Grant Office, to assess fluency on a range of reading-related tasks. DIBELS makes strong claims regarding its usefulness in documenting reading progress and predicting success on standardized tests and is frequently used to group and level students for intervention and instruction. This article addresses the effectiveness of using DIBELS to assess second-grade readers and presents an analysis of the relationship between DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency (DORF) and authentic reading. Our data show no connection between DORF and students' oral reading fluency and comprehension of authentic literature and questions the usefulness of DIBELS.

A New Formative Assessment Technology for Reading and Writing

Advances in assessment technologies are affording teachers and students new ways to efficiently assess and track achievement while also better promoting learning. WriteToLearn is one such technology, a Web-based tool that integrates practice and assessment in reading comprehension with writing about what is learned. Based on the principle of immediate feedback, WriteToLearn is a combination of summative and formative assessment tools that seeks to encourage, instruct, and reward progress in reading and writing while it is happening. It does this by providing students with instant, computer-generated evaluations of the substantive content and expository quality of writing about what they are learning. Its real-time and long-term reports about student activity and progress give teachers and schools rich information for guiding classroom instruction and curricular decisions. This article discusses the motivation for and design of WriteToLearn, as well as studies of its accuracy, reliability, and effectiveness in the classroom.

Class size reduction or rapid formative assessment?: A comparison of cost-effectiveness

The cost-effectiveness of class size reduction (CSR) was compared with the cost-effectiveness of rapid formative assessment, a promising alternative for raising student achievement. Drawing upon existing meta-analyses of the effects of student–teacher ratio, evaluations of CSR in Tennessee, California, and Wisconsin, and RAND cost estimates, CSR was found to be 124 times less cost effective than the implementation of systems that rapidly assess student progress in math and reading two to five times per week. Analysis of the results from California and Wisconsin suggest that the relative effectiveness of rapid formative assessment may be substantially underestimated. Further research regarding class size reduction is unlikely to be fruitful, and attention should be turned to rapid formative assessment and other more promising alternatives.

Data Mining the Factors of E-Learning Performance through Decision Trees and Apriori Associated Rules

The purpose of this research is to find out the factors that influence E-Learning performance from the learners' perspectives. The research selected the data on students who were enrolled in a Life-Education course during one semester and did data mining from the web learning portfolios, learning styles and learning experiences using Apriori rules, Decision trees and Cross tables in order to perform statistical analyses. The web learning portfolios include the frequency of attending the class, pasting articles, on-line discussion, reading time, number of pages read, and reading progress. The factors of learning styles include active/reflective, sensing/intuitive, visual/verbal, and sequential/global. The learners' experiences include gender, types of software used, prior computer experience in years, average daily time spent on-line, and prior computer degree of capability. The dependent variables considered in this E-Learning evaluation are the logical and creative performance. We used Clementine software for data mining. In the Decision trees, this research found that the sensing style students could have better logical performance. From Apriori rules and Cross statistical analysis, the high average daily on-line time could create higher performance in creative measurements. Females had better performance in the creative parts of evaluation. Finally, interactive learning is the most important factor in E-Learning.

Letters to the Editor

8 May 2008 Dear Editor, CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING BEHAVIOURAL INTERVENTIONS FOR NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS Reynolds and Nicolson state that they are accustomed to criticisms of their study; it is important to be clear why the criticisms continue. There are two reasons: first, their intervention study was methodologically deficient on many counts (see Table 1); second, the stakes are high, because their findings are used to promote the Dore approach to treatment of learning disabilities. Thus, on the Dore website (http://www.dore.co.uk), this research is cited as showing that for those completing the intervention, ‘Reading progress improved by 300%, SATS Comprehension improved by 500%, SATS Writing improved by 1700%, dyslexia risk reduced to no risk or borderline risk in all pupils, and attention symptoms improved by over 80%’. Clearly, claims such as these will encourage many parents to sign up for this expensive treatment. The research by Reynolds and colleagues is also used to support the view that the root cause of learning disabilities is an underdeveloped cerebellum. Parents who buy into the Dore programme with the reassurance of a money-back guarantee need to be aware that there is no refund if their child's dyslexia, dyspraxia or Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder does not improve; a refund is given only if they fail to show gains on vestibular tests used to index cerebellar function. Since vestibular function matures with age,5 and balance and eye movements are explicitly trained in the programme, most children will improve on these tests over an intervention period of 1–2 years. Nicolson and Reynolds 6 argued that one should ‘fight against the attempt to impose the drug-trial methodology on education’ (p. 107), apparently concluding that it is not necessary to include a control group in an intervention study. They regard the possibility of practice effects on their measures as ‘absurd’ (cf.7), and do not accept the need to take into account possible effects of maturation, placebo effects and regression to the mean when interpreting improvements. In their rejoinder, they repeatedly single out results obtained from the uncontrolled part of their study (National Foundation for Educational Research Reading Test, Standard Attainment Tests and attention ratings) when arguing for efficacy. In 2004, an editorial in Nature Neuroscience noted the discrepancy between the strict levels of scientific evidence that are required before the introduction of a new pharmacological intervention, compared with the lack of regulation of non-drug interventions. Torgerson and Torgerson1 argued that randomised controlled trials are the best way of distinguishing true effects from artefactual improvements in educational interventions. The guidelines listed in Table 1, based on their recommendations and the Revised CONSORT statement,2 are proposed as a benchmark. Of course, there is scope for preliminary studies of a new intervention that adopt a less rigorous methodology; if, however, research is cited as evidence of efficacy of a commercial product, then it should conform to agreed scientific standards.

Reading abilities after cochlear implantation: The effect of age at implantation on outcomes at 5 and 7 years after implantation

The reading skills of deaf children have typically been delayed and this delay has been found to increase with age. This study explored the reading ability of a large group of children who had received cochlear implants 7 years earlier and investigated the relationship between reading ability and age at implantation. The reading ages of 105 children, with age at implantation less than 7 years and onset of deafness below the age of three, were assessed 5 and 7 years after implantation using the Edinburgh reading test. Net reading age was calculated by using the difference between chronological age and reading age. Non-verbal intelligence was measured for a subset of 71 children, using Raven's coloured progressive matrices. Further investigation of this subset looked at the association of nonverbal intelligence, age at implantation and reading ability. There was a strong negative correlation at both 5 and 7 years after implant between net reading score and age at implantation. In the subset of 71 children who had an IQ score within normal range, those implanted at or before 42 months had age-appropriate reading both 5 and 7 years post-implant. This was not the case for children implanted after 42 months. Reading progress at the two post-implant assessment intervals were found to be highly related. Age at implantation was a significant factor in the development of reading skills in this group. In children implanted below the age of 42 months, reading progress was in line with chronological age, which has not been the case previously with profoundly deaf children. With earlier implantation more common in present groups, and improved technology, there is every reason to be optimistic about the influence of cochlear implantation on the development of reading skills in deaf children.

The effectiveness of Additional Literacy Support (ALS) in Years 3 and 4

This study compared the progress in reading and spelling of 256 children in 11 classes in 9 English primary schools in Years 3 and 4, and a partially overlapping sample of 126 children who received additional help with literacy during 1 year. Teachers and teaching assistants used either Additional Literacy Support (ALS), a highly structured set of small group teaching materials devised by the English National Literacy Strategy, or a wide variety of other materials including other published intervention programmes, reading scheme-based, computer-based and individually designed interventions, or a combination of ALS and other interventions. The influence of a broad range of contextual factors were investigated, especially whether children's qualities, school factors such as socio-economic status and class size, and delivery differences made significant differences to the outcomes of the different interventions. The study used a naturalistic quasi-experimental design, in which teachers were asked to record details of their children and interventions without altering their professional decisions, which has not been used before in investigating literacy difficulties in context. ALS was marginally more effective than other interventions in the majority of classes, but was clearly superior in value for money terms. Children's qualities did not appear to affect outcomes. Although children receiving additional help made better than average progress, overall catch-up was limited, especially in spelling.

Applying Cognitive Behavioural Methods to Retrain Children's Attributions for Success and Failure in Learning

This study involves the use of methods derived from cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) to change the attributions for success and failure of school children with regard to learning. Children with learning difficulties and/or motivational and self-esteem difficulties ( n = 29) were identified by their schools. The children then took part in twelve 30-minute group sessions with an educational psychologist, in which the children's attributions were retrained using methods derived from CBT. The intervention appeared to accelerate the children's progress in reading but not in spelling. Significant improvements in motivation and self-esteem were reported by the children and their parents. These changes were less apparent to the teachers. The findings point to a potentially fruitful way of offering additional intervention and support to children with learning difficulties and of increasing attainment. The cognitive behaviour methods complement more directly focused curricular work in a positive manner.

General education teacher judgments of their low‐performing students' short‐term reading progress

AbstractThis study investigated the accuracy of classroom teachers' judgments of the reading progress of their low‐performing students. Participants were 36 second grade teachers and students in their lowest reading groups (n = 150). Student progress was monitored weekly using reading‐curriculum‐based measurement (R‐CBM) procedures. After 6 weeks, teachers were asked to rate their students' progress. Expert judges later reviewed the teachers' R‐CBM graphs and rated the individual and group progress based on the graphs. Teacher ratings did not correlate with expert ratings or the R‐CBM slope estimates. Expert ratings correlated highly with slope estimates. Teachers' estimates of progress were significantly higher than expert judges' ratings, indicating that teachers may overestimate student progress. Implications for practice and future research are discussed. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Evaluating and sustaining Precision Teaching interventions in schools

The subject of how school staff can be supported in teaching children basic literacy skills has been the topic of debate for many years, with recent guidance continuing to stress the importance of this area of schooling (Brooks, 2007). One of the approaches often recommended by EPs in developing key literacy skills is Precision Teaching (PT). This article describes how an EP working in a school in the south-west of England used this approach to show how progress in reading could be developed compared to the usual literacy hour techniques. As part of an evaluation of a school development initiative, a heightened emphasis is given to reflections of the ‘systemic’ outcomes of the PT intervention in relation to how the style of training and support provided for the staff led to a sustainable change in practice.

Reading aloud to children: the evidence

Promoting healthy child development lies at the heart of paediatric practice, yet a major challenge facing the field is applying evidence based standards. However, the evidence is clear as regards...

Beyond Tutoring

One of the greatest challenges facing teachers is accommodating struggling, diverse, and at-risk readers. Even with the use of effective, research-based techniques, many children fail to make adequate progress in reading and may need additional assistance. One way to provide this assistance is through tutoring. This article outlines a successful after-school reading project that utilized university graduate students as tutors for struggling readers. The authors discuss both challenges and solutions associated with the project.