Reading Fluency Intervention Research Articles

Do Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Factors Predict Responses to Reading Fluency Interventions?

We investigated whether emotional and motivational factors had predictive effects beyond those of cognitive factors on responses to two reading fluency interventions. Eighty-two dysfluent readers (Grades 3–5) participated in a 12-week school-based fluency intervention, either combined with or without self-efficacy support. Response to the intervention was determined by the fluency gain score and the Reliable Change Index. In the skill-focused intervention, cognitive predictors contributed to the response, and reading-related anxiety and self-efficacy had effects beyond the cognitive predictors. Weaker initial reading skills and older age predicted response in the combined intervention. Thus, children's personal characteristics may have a greater influence on their responses in a skills-focused intervention than in an intervention that also considers emotional and motivational aspects.

초등학생의 읽기유창성과 언어능력과의 관계

Objectives This study aimed to explore the connections between language skills (vocabulary, syntactic ability, expressive sentence pattern production) and reading fluency in elementary school students. Methods The research involved 51 children from grades 1 to 6 in elementary schools across Seoul, Gyeonggi, and Chungcheong. Various tools, such as the text reading fluency test, receptive vocabulary test, and syntatic comprehension test, were utilized. Additionally, tasks evaluating written and spoken expressive sentence patterns were carried out through a fill-in-the-blank test and a discourse completion task. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze performance across different grade levels (low, middle, and high), examining significant differences between the groups. Correlation analysis was used to examine the relationships between each variable, and multiple regression analysis was performed to identify the factors influencing reading fluency. Results The study revealed variations in reading fluency and language skills (vocabulary, syntactic ability, scores on written tasks assessing expressive sentence patterns, and the number of expressive sentence types in oral tasks) among different grades. Correlation analysis indicated that scores on written tasks assessing expressive sentence patterns, receptive vocabulary, and the number of expressive sentence types in spoken tasks were correlated with reading fluency. As a result of multiple regression analysis, the explanatory power of linguistic variables on reading fluency was 51.9%. Conclusions In this study, we identified linguistic variables that are correlated with reading fluency in school-age children. Specifically, we found that the ability to produce expressive sentences was correlated with reading fluency. The results of this study suggest new implications for future reading fluency interventions.

Assessing an Instructional Level During Reading Fluency Interventions: A Meta-Analysis of the Effects on Reading

The current study meta-analyzed 27 effects from 21 studies to determine the effect assessment of text difficulty had on reading fluency interventions, which resulted in an overall weighted effect size ( ES) = 0.43 (95% CI = [0.25, 0.62], p < .001). Using reading passages that represented an instructional level based on accuracy criteria led to a large weighted effect of ES = 1.03, 95% CI = [0.65, 1.40], p < .01), which was reliably larger ( p < .05) than that for reading fluency interventions that used reading passages with an instructional level based on rate criteria (weighted ES = 0.29, 95% CI = [0.07, 0.50], p < .01). Using reading passages based on leveling systems or those written at the students’ current grade level resulted in small weighted effects. The approach to determining difficulty for reading passages used in reading fluency interventions accounted for 11% of the variance in the effect ( p < .05) beyond student group (no risk, at-risk, disability) and type of fluency intervention. The largest weighted effect was found for students with reading disabilities ( ES = 1.14, 95% CI = [0.64, 1.65], p < .01).

The Influence of English Learner Status on Maintenance of Oral Reading Fluency Growth

Relatively little is known regarding post-intervention reading fluency outcomes for English learners (ELs) in comparison with non-EL peers, yet educators must be prepared to sustain growth for all students transitioning to less-intensive tiers of support. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether EL status moderated post-intervention maintenance effects among U.S. second- and third-grade students who transitioned back to Tier 1 instruction only due to successful performance during a Tier 2 reading fluency intervention. Piecewise multi-level models were estimated to address whether EL status uniquely predicted intervention growth patterns and the extent to which these patterns were maintained over a 12- to 13-week post-intervention period. Reading fluency scores were similar between EL and non-EL students prior to the start of and during the intervention, and all students’ performance decreased slightly immediately after support ceased. Regardless of grade level or EL status, post-intervention fluency gains generally remained smaller than those observed during intervention meriting attention to individual- and systems-level instructional considerations for ensuring continued growth.

Fluency Training for Struggling Readers: Examining the Effects of a Tier-2 Intervention in Third Graders

Tier-2 reading fluency interventions are specifically tailored for struggling readers, addressing their unique needs. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of a Tier-2 reading fluency intervention on reading capabilities and motivation among third-grade students identified as at risk. The intervention employed various strategies, including non-repetitive reading, exploration of challenging words, model reading, eco-reading, assisted reading, and both self- and hetero-assessment of reading proficiency. A two-group randomized controlled trial was employed, comprising an intervention group (N n = 162) and a delayed intervention control group (N = 183). Both groups underwent pre-test and post-test evaluations in reading accuracy and fluency. Additionally, a separate cohort of students without reading difficulties was assessed (N = 225). The intervention resulted in significantly improved word reading accuracy and reading fluency scores in the intervention group compared to the control group. While the gap between the intervention and control groups was slightly reduced, no significant effects on motivation were observed. These findings underscore the relevance of Tier-2 reading fluency interventions in preventing the development of persistent reading difficulties.

Effects of a Repeated Reading Intervention Delivered Online to Upper Elementary Students

Repeated reading is an intervention with strong evidence for improving students’ oral reading fluency. However, little research has examined the use of this intervention outside of traditional school contexts. School closures due to COVID-19 forced schools and teacher preparation programs to create new approaches to evidence-based reading interventions that could be delivered online. This study examined the effects of a repeated reading fluency intervention delivered synchronously online. A single-case repeated acquisition design examined the intervention’s effects on three upper elementary students’ correct word reading fluency, defined as the number of words read correctly per minute. Visual analysis indicated repeated readings had a positive impact on all students’ reading fluency. Future research should examine whether this intervention can improve students’ comprehension when delivered online.

A preliminary evaluation of positive self‐review as an oral reading fluency intervention

AbstractVideo self‐modeling (VSM) has been used to improve the social behaviors of students from diverse backgrounds. However, its application to reading fluency is still in the preliminary stage. VSM can be divided into feedforward VSM (FFVSM) and positive self‐review (PSR). Previous studies examined the effect of stand‐alone FFVSM and its effect when adding it to intervention packages or repeated reading (RR). However, no study has examined the effect of PSR on improving reading fluency. Following a baseline phase, an alternating treatments design compared the control, PSR, RR, and PSR + RR conditions. The comparisons evaluated the stand‐alone effect of PSR and the effect of PSR as an intervention component when added to RR. The extended analysis and follow‐up phase validated the most effective intervention identified in the alternating treatments phase for each participant and evaluated the long‐term effect of the most effective interventions. Based on visual analysis and two effect size measurements (Nonoverlaps of All Pairs and Tau‐U), PSR was found to be effective for only one of three elementary school students with disabilities. Moreover, RR was more effective than the stand‐alone PSR for the participants. Practical implications, limitations, and future studies are discussed.

Translation and cultural adaptation of the HELPS Reading Fluency Program into Brazilian Portuguese: A report of systematic adaptation processes and initial evidence of efficacy.

Across multiples languages, research demonstrates the important relationship between reading fluency and comprehension. Put simply, a fluent reader has greater attention and memory resources to use higher-order functions in reading, resulting in better comprehension of text. Some reading fluency interventions have shown positive results in improving students' text reading fluency and comprehension; however, this research has predominantly been conducted with English-speaking students. For instance, until this report, a comprehensive search revealed only one prior study that evaluated an intervention strategy designed to improve students' reading fluency in Brazilian Portuguese and no prior studies evaluated an intervention program with that population of students. The main goals of this two-part project were to (a) systematically translate, culturally adapt, and pilot test the Helping Early Literacy with Practice Strategies (HELPS) reading fluency program for use in Brazilian Portuguese (referred to as, HELPS-PB); and (b) conduct a preliminary quasi-experimental study of the HELPS-PB program with 23 students in grades 3 to 5 who needed a reading fluency intervention. This report documents the processes and successful adaptation of existing English- and Spanish-versions of HELPS into a new HELPS-PB program. It also offers preliminary evidence showing that students receiving HELPS-PB significantly improved their text reading fluency comparted to students in a control group. Implications for research, practice, and the adaptation of reading fluency programs into other languages are discussed.

Thinking outside the phonological box: Combining repeated reading and action video games to develop reading fluency in year 7 children with dyslexia

AimsChildren’s reading attainments in England continue to cause concern despite a national agenda focusing on the development of phonological skills. There is also a lack of guidance regarding how to support children who continue to struggle despite early support, including children with dyslexia and those in secondary education. Italian research groups found that playing action video games (AVGs) improved word and pseudo-word reading speed for children with dyslexia through increasing visual attention. The current study aims to build on this research, exploring whether AVGs boost the effects of a reading fluency intervention, Repeated Reading (RR). The effectiveness of RR alone is also analysed. Effects of the intervention on a range of measures are considered.MethodA single case experimental design (SCED) with alternating interventions, RR-alone and RR-plus-AVGs, was employed with eight Year 7 children with dyslexia in a UK special school.FindingsAll children demonstrated reading gains from the combined intervention, RR and AVGs. RR-alone was effective for two children and AVGs boosted the effects of RR for five children. Six children increased their reading comprehension. Children enjoyed playing AVGs. RR was viewed positively by teachers and viewed by children as improving their reading.LimitationsConfidence in results was reduced by variability and some effect sizes not reaching significance. The special school setting for children with dyslexia may affect generalisability to mainstream schools or to struggling readers without dyslexia.ConclusionsImplications for educational psychologists’ practice are discussed, particularly how to proceed, with what appears to be a promising intervention.

Reading fluency intervention dosage: A novel meta-analysis and research synthesis

Reading fluency is a fundamental component of reading proficiency, and yet, it is a common area of need for students demonstrating reading difficulties. In response, reading fluency interventions have been researched and implemented relatively extensively, but how much intervention is needed to affect reading fluency growth is not clear. The purpose of this study was to meta-analyze and synthesize the research base regarding targeted reading fluency interventions for kindergarten through 12th grade students and to examine how intervention dosage is conceptualized and measured in these interventions. Thirty-three articles met the study inclusion criteria, and overall effects of reading fluency interventions were moderate (effect size = 0.46, 95% CI [0.23, 0.68], p < .001), with study design (group design ES = 0.41, single case design ES = 0.75) and study rigor moderating study effects (group design met standards ES = 0.57, group design did not meet standards ES = 0.34, single case design met standards ES = 0.79, single case design did not meet standards ES = 0.57). Most studies conceptualized and reported intervention dosage as the amount of time spent in intervention with intervention duration impacting total intervention growth. Implications for practice and research are discussed, particularly the need for additional research examining proximal measurement of intervention dosage in an effort to best understand how opportunities to practice impact reading fluency growth.

The Effects of Reading Fluency Intervention via Tele-practice Parent Coaching on Parent’s Intervention Strategies and the Reading Fluency Skills of Children with Cochlear Implants

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of tele-practice parent coaching on parents’ intervention strategies and the reading fluency skills of children with cochlear implants (CIs).Methods: Five dyads of mother and child with CIs participated in this study. Five Korean second graders with cochlear implants participated in reading fluency tasks individually. All of them had reading fluency difficulties. We examined the efficacy of tele-practice parent coaching program for children with CIs by employing a pretest-posttest-maintenance design.Results: The parents demonstrated increases in their use of each reading intervention strategies after parent-coaching instruction. Post and maintenance of intervention strategies use in the home was sustained; indicating that parent coaching routines are effective to achieve maximal outcomes. All children demonstrated gains in their use of reading fluency skills.Conclusion: The results show that the parent coaching delivered through tele-practice had positive effects on parents’ learning behaviors and the reading fluency of children with CIs. This study provides useful information for developing parent coaching programs in terms of the reading fluency skills of children with CIs. Thus, the implementation of developing parent programs in the field of communication disorders is suggested.

Face-to-Face Versus Remote: Effects of an Intervention in Reading Fluency During COVID-19 Pandemic

Fluency is a central skill for successful reading. Research has provided evidence that systematic reading fluency interventions can be effective. However, research is scarce on the effects of interventions delivered remotely versus face-to-face. This study investigated the efficacy of a systematic and standardized intervention for promoting reading fluency in third-grade students (N= 207) during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study had a pretest, posttest, and follow-up design, with two intervention groups (remote vs face-to-face) and a control group. The intervention groups experienced 20 intervention sessions (2 sessions per week), each lasting approximately 50 min. Word reading accuracy, text reading accuracy, and fluency were measured in the three rounds of assessment. In both intervention groups, all measures of reading showed gains from pretest to posttest. The results also suggested that the efficacy of the intervention was similar in the remote and face-to-face modalities. These findings highlight the relevance of systematic interventions in increasing reading fluency and support the use of remote interventions as an adequate alternative to face-to-face interventions.

Exploring the Effectiveness of Student Topic Choice in Reading Fluency Interventions

Exploring the Effectiveness of Student Topic Choice in Reading Fluency Interventions

A Systematic Review on Quality Indicators of Randomized Control Trial Reading Fluency Intervention Studies

Although several studies have examined the effectiveness of reading fluency interventions, the methodological rigor of these studies remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the quality of randomized controlled trial (RCT) reading fluency intervention studies using the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) standards. Twenty-six studies met the inclusion criteria for the review. All included studies met the four quality indicators for context and setting, participants, intervention agent, and data analysis. In addition, 22 out of the 26 studies met the quality indicators for internal validity and implementation fidelity, and 18 met the quality indicator for outcome measure. Finally, 16 of the studies met all eight quality indicators, and the majority of them also reported significant effects on reading fluency outcomes. Findings and future directions are discussed considering the quality indicators for methodologically rigorous reading fluency intervention studies.

Developing fluency and comprehension with the secondary fluency routine

This article examines the effects of a reading fluency intervention on the fluency and comprehension of struggling middle school readers. The secondary fluency routine was developed by the first author, and was based on effective practices described in other studies. Thirty-nine seventh and eighth grade students enrolled in reading intervention classes participated in the study, which lasted for a period of 18 weeks. Students in the treatment classes participated in the Secondary Fluency Routine for 10 minutes daily, while students in the comparison classrooms participated in independent reading during that time. Participants were pre- and posttested using the GORT-5. A repeated measures analysis of variance was conducted on all outcome measures which included rate, accuracy, fluency, oral reading index, prosody, and comprehension. There were no interaction effects; however, main effects were detected on all measures, and mean difference effect sizes indicated that the intervention was effective in increasing reading fluency and comprehension.

Adding Mindfulness to an Evidence-Based Reading Intervention for a Student with SLD: a Pilot Study

Students with specific learning disability (SLD) are at a greater risk for reading difficulties, academic stress, and deficits in self-efficacy. There are several research-supported interventions used in schools that are effective in increasing reading skills (e.g., reading fluency) but do not explicitly address academic stress or deficient self-efficacy. A possible solution may be the addition of mindfulness techniques, as they have been shown to support a wide range of related student outcomes. Incorporating mindfulness through an app-based delivery approach may be beneficial in this scenario as they are low cost, easily accessible, and a simple tool to help meet the unique social-emotional and academic needs of students with SLD. The current study examined the extent to which adding a brief, app-based mindfulness intervention to an already established evidence-based reading fluency intervention (paired reading) would improve reading fluency, academic stress, and self-efficacy for a student with an SLD in reading.

Toward Incorporating Efficiency Data in Brief Experimental Analysis Decision Making

Brief experimental analysis (BEA) is frequently used to drive intervention selection decisions for students in need of intensive reading fluency intervention. Researchers have demonstrated that most BEA results for students with reading fluency difficulties are undifferentiated when considering the standard error of measurement (SEM) of curriculum-based measurement reading (CBM-R) passages. When confronted with this situation, practitioners must rely on some other characteristic of interventions to drive selection decisions. Considering intervention efficiency alongside effectiveness may be one way to inform selection decisions in the face of undifferentiated BEA results. The current study was undertaken to determine how frequently BEA results are undifferentiated when considering the SEM of CBM-R passages and demonstrate how efficiency data may be considered in tandem with effectiveness data to inform intervention selection. One-trial brief experimental analyses (OTBEAs) consisting of three reading interventions and a control condition were conducted with 14 1st through 11th (M = 4th) graders in the southeastern region of the United States. Results indicated the confidence interval of the most effective intervention overlapped with that of the control condition 50% of the time and that of a more efficient intervention 37% of the time. Limitations and future directions are also discussed.

Profiles of reading performance after exiting Tier 2 intervention

AbstractA fundamental assumption of multi‐tiered systems of support is the bidirectional movement of students between tiers. In comparison to research on when to intensify instruction, less attention has been paid to the validity of decisions to exit students from supplemental supports. We used data from 554 third‐grade students who met the criteria to be exited from a Tier 2 reading fluency intervention to answer two research questions. First, we used latent profile analysis to evaluate whether distinct profiles of student responding would emerge based upon initial skill level and intervention duration. Second, we evaluated whether the proportion of students who passed the end‐of‐year benchmark differed between profiles. Results favored a three‐profile solution with a Below Average Start/Average Response; Average Start/Average Response; and an Above Average Start/Fast Response. The pooled mean proportion of students who did not achieve proficiency on the end‐of‐year benchmark assessment equaled 0.45, 0.33, and 0.13 across the three profiles, respectively. A series of χ2 tests indicated the between‐profile differences were statistically significant (p &lt; .05). The results of this study suggest that there may be distinct profiles amongst students who show positive response and exit Tier 2 reading fluency interventions.

Evaluating the effect of parent reading interventions on improving reading fluency of students with reading difficulties

AbstractThe current study examines the effect of parent reading interventions on the reading fluency of students with reading disabilities. The experimental procedure was carried out in two stages. In the first stage, the Brief Experimental Analysis procedure was followed to determine the most effective reading fluency intervention for all participants, and in the next step, the parental delivery of the selected intervention procedure took place. Brief experimental analysis was used to identify appropriate reading fluency intervention for each participant. Parents were trained to use the intervention strategies with their children. They implemented the procedures during parent‐tutoring sessions at home and results were measured continuously to determine whether generalization occurred. Parent and child satisfaction with the interventions was assessed. Results demonstrated generalized increases in reading fluency in both high‐word‐overlap and low‐word‐overlap passages as a function of parent tutoring. Also, acceptability ratings by children and their parents indicated that they viewed the interventions as acceptable and effective.

Enseñar fluidez lectora en el aula: de la investigación a la práctica

Se presenta una propuesta colaborativa entre universidad y escuela para diseñar e implementar en el aula un programa de fluidez lectora basado en evidencias. Participaron 36 alumnos de 2º de Educación Primaria, sus maestras y dos profesores de universidad que actuaron como asesores, constituyendo todos un grupo de trabajo. Se formó a las maestras en contenidos de fluidez y se realizó una evaluación inicial para identificar los grupos de riesgo, emergente y establecido en fluidez lectora. Se diseñó e implementó durante 7 meses un entrenamiento ajustado a cada nivel basado en la lectura repetida de palabras y frases. Los resultados reflejan una mejoría en la competencia de las maestras por la integración del entrenamiento de la fluidez en su sistema de respuesta, adaptándolo a distintos niveles de enseñanza. En el alumnado se constató una mejoría en la fluidez. Se plantea la necesidad de acercar a las escuelas las aportaciones de la investigación educativa y de ayudar a los docentes a desarrollar intervenciones basadas en la misma y ajustadas al nivel del grupo de clase.