Reading Comprehension Subtest Research Articles

Cognitive Predictors of Two Distinct Reading Comprehension Tasks in Lower and Upper Grades

Reading disorders, including reading comprehension disorders, are among the most common referrals for evaluation in schools. If that evaluation involves individually administered tests of reading, the examiner is faced with selecting at least one reading comprehension subtest that is inherently associated with specific task demands, such as a cloze procedure or a story retell procedure. This study explored the correlates of performance of these two types of reading comprehension measures in lower grades (i.e., grades 1–5) and upper grades (i.e., grades 6–12). Results revealed a moderate correlation between these two tasks and evidence that students with reading disorders may perform poorer on cloze reading comprehension measures than story retell measures in both grade groupings. Regression analyses revealed that variance in each reading comprehension task is associated with a unique grouping of predictor variables that are associated with the Big Five of Reading and short-term/working memory. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for the evaluation of students with suspected disabilities and research.

The Technical Adequacy of Coding Procedures for Retell Measures in Elementary School Students with Dyslexia

This study examined the psychometric properties of two common frameworks for scoring retell data (i.e., clause- and idea unit-based methods) among 86 third- through fifth-grade students with dyslexia. At the beginning and end of the school year, students read two grade-level R-CBM probes (one orally and one silently) and engaged in a retell following each passage. Results from the clause- and idea unit-based scoring frameworks were compared to a criterion measure, the GORT-5 Reading Comprehension subtest. Both retell scoring methods demonstrated adequate temporal stability across the school year and were also sensitive to detecting growth in student’s comprehension skills across the year. Clause- and idea unit-based scores were found to correlate strongly with one another and correlated moderately to strongly with the criterion measure. Although differences did not emerge in the correlational results, mean differences did emerge with clause-based scoring resulting in a higher percentage of recall than did idea-units. Overall, results from this study provide support for the validity of retell as a measure of reading comprehension among elementary school students with dyslexia.

Exploring Individual Changes in Disability Status and Their Relations to Reading Comprehension Development

This study used data from Michigan schools participating in the Reading First program to examine the stability of students’ disability status in Grades 1 to 3. Reading First aimed to improve at-risk students’ reading comprehension through research-based instruction. We analyzed how changes in students’ disability status were related to reading comprehension growth. The sample consisted of n = 10,196 students from 191 schools who took the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) Reading Comprehension subtest. Data were collected from 2003 through 2008. We observed considerable changes in disability status for students with speech–language disorders or a specific learning disability ( n = 1,193). These students had lower achievement levels and made less progress than students without disabilities. Overall, achievement gains did not differ between students with different stability and change patterns in their disability status. However, students changing from speech–language disorders to a specific learning disability demonstrated the smallest achievement gains.

Association between social networking and cognition among middle aged and older adults in rural India

AbstractBackgroundEmerging evidence suggests that better social networking is associated with better cognitive performance among older adults. However, most of the prior studies have used global cognitive measures to study the above relationship. In this study, we aim to investigate the role of social networking on distinct cognitive domains, among dementia‐free middle‐aged and older‐age adults from a rural Indian population.MethodBaseline assessment data of 2403 participants (≥45 years), who are part of an ongoing, prospective, aging cohort study in rural India (Srinivaspura Aging, NeuroSenescence, and COGnition, SANSCOG) and having a Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) of ‘0’ who are cognitively healthy was utilized for this study. Social networking was assessed using Cohen’s Social Network Index (SNI), wherein three dimensions were examined – network diversity, number of people in social network and number of embedded networks. Cognitive functions were assessed using episodic memory, geometric figure spatial recognition, verbal fluency, semantic association, word comprehension, reading comprehension and visuospatial span subtests of a culturally validated, computerized, neurocognitive test battery. Linear regression models, adjusted with age and gender were used for statistical analysis.ResultIn the linear regression model, adjusted for age and gender, higher network diversity was significantly associated with better cognitive performance in episodic memory (β = 0.16, p = 0.001), attention function (β = 0.07, p = 0.004), geometric figure spatial recognition (β = 0.13, p = 0.001), verbal fluency phonemic cue (β = 0.11, p = 0.001), reading comprehension (β = 0.09, p = 0.001) and semantic language association function (β = 0.08, p = 0.001). Further, higher dimension of number of people in social network was significantly associated with better cognitive performances in semantic language association function (β = 0.002, p = 0.04). Furthermore, in the third dimension of SNI, higher dimension of number of embedded networks was significantly associated with better cognitive performances in visuospatial span (β = 0.05, p = 0.046) and verbal fluency phonemic cue (β = 0.103, p = 0.001).ConclusionThe findings suggest that better social networking in all three dimensions was associated with better cognitive functions in multiple distinct cognitive domains. It is important to follow‐up these participants longitudinally with serial cognitive monitoring to understand if social networking can potentially delay cognitive decline and thereby, serve as a protective factor for dementia.

Effects of Unilateral Hearing Loss on Speech-Evoked Auditory Brainstem Responses and Reading: A Preliminary Study.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the speech-evoked auditory brainstem responses (sABRs) obtained by stimulating the ear with normal sensitivity in children with unilateral hearing loss (UHL) were different from that of children with normal hearing (NH), and to explore correlations between the sABR findings and measures of reading. Eleven children with UHL and 11 children with NH were tested via the BioMARK sABR protocol using the syllable /da/; latency and amplitudes of Waves V, A, C, D, E, F, and O were measured. Participants also were tested on the Phonemic Synthesis Test (PST) and the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised (WRMT-R), particularly the Reading Readiness, Basic Skills, and Comprehension subtests. Multivariate analysis of variance testing showed a significantly higher amplitude for Wave A for the NH group as compared to the UHL group. Separate ANOVAs also found significantly lower scores for the UHL group compared to the NH group on Basic Skills and Comprehension subtests of the Woodcock. Significant positive Spearman rho correlations were found for the UHL group between wave amplitudes for V, A, and O and the Reading Readiness score, and between wave amplitudes for V, A, D, and O and the Reading Comprehension score. A significant correlation also was found between the Total Reading score and wave amplitudes for V and A. No such correlations were found between wave amplitude and Woodcock scores for the NH group. Further testing of the UHL data found significant relationships between the pure-tone average of the hearing loss ear and the Basic Skills, Comprehension, and Total Reading scores from the WRMT-R. There was also a significant correlation between the PST score and Wave C amplitude. There may be a connection between speech encoding and measures of reading in children with UHL.

Investigating Second Language (L2) Reading Subskill Associations: A Cognitive Diagnosis Approach

ABSTRACT This study uses a cognitive diagnosis model (CDM) approach to investigate the associations among specific L2 reading subskills. Participants include 1,203 Year-4 English major college students randomly selected from the nationwide test takers of Band 8 of Test for English Majors (TEM8), a large-scale English proficiency test for senior English majors in China. Their English reading was measured using a reading comprehension subtest of the TEM8. Based on the CDM output on latent class size estimates, the chi-square test of independence was used to uncover the associations among reading subskills, and odds ratio estimation was used to determine the strengths of those associations. The CDM output on attribute mastery prevalence was used to establish the stochastic direction of the associations between reading subskills. The study has the following findings: a reading subskill network displaying significant subskill associations together with their strengths and directions can be established through a CDM approach, and the patterns of reading subskill associations based on cognitive levels and local/global comprehension resonate with major reading process models and reflect the hierarchical and compensatory characteristics of reading subskills.

A Reading Comprehension Intervention for Dual Language Learners With Weak Language and Reading Skills.

We evaluated the efficacy of a reading comprehension intervention with dual language learners (DLLs) with documented English reading comprehension difficulties, half of whom had a developmental language disorder. The intervention EMBRACE (Enhanced Moved by Reading to Accelerate Comprehension in English) required children to move images on an iPad to both improve and demonstrate understanding of multichapter stories. Additionally, we determined the characteristics of students who most benefit from the intervention. Fifty-six participants in second to fifth grades were randomly assigned to one of two groups: (a) Spanish support intervention or (b) Spanish support control. Outcome measures included performance on comprehension questions related to the intervention texts, two transfer texts with no strategy instruction, and the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests-Fourth Edition Reading Comprehension subtest administered pre- and post-intervention. Multilevel hierarchical linear models were used to account for nesting of question within child within classroom. For this group of DLLs, the overall intervention effect was not statistically significant. However, the intervention was most effective with narrative (vs. expository) texts and easy (vs. more difficult) texts. DLLs with lower initial English reading abilities (decoding and comprehension) benefited more from the intervention than those with stronger reading skills. The EMBRACE intervention has promise for use with DLLs with low baseline decoding and comprehension skills, particularly in early elementary grades. Future research should aim to match text difficulty with child skills when introducing new comprehension strategies to maximize benefit from the intervention.

The profile of reading and cognitive skills of children with a history of specific developmental language disorder

The present study aimed to investigate the profile of reading and cognitive skills of primary school' students with a history of specific developmental language disorder during preschool years. The sample comprised 247 children referred for assessment of their reading difficulties to the University Child Psychiatry Department, at the "Aghia Sophia" Children's Hospital, Athens, Greece. The study was retrospective utilizing medical records from where the following information was drawn: demographic data, presence of a diagnosis of a specific developmental language disorder, results of Reading Test-A and WISC-III. Among the 247 children with normal intelligence IQ>80 (mean age: 10.5 years, 61.5% boys) included in the study, 226 (92.5%) were identified as having significant reading difficulties in at least one of the four subtests of the Reading-A Test (≤ 30 percentile); 72% performed poorly in reading fluency, 67.1% in decoding familiar and pseudowords, 52.8% in reading comprehension and 49.8% in morphosyntax subtest. When comparing children with severe reading difficulties (≤ 10 percentile on the Reading Test A) with a history of specific developmental language disorder (N=110) and no relevant history (N=116), the findings indicated that a significantly higher proportion of children with a history of specific language disorder had severe difficulty in morphosyntax (χ2=21.94, p<0.001) and reading comprehension subtests (χ2=8.89, p <0,001) than those with no history. In terms of the cognitive profile of children with severe reading difficulties, the results showed that a significantly higher proportion of children with a history of developmental language disorder than those with no history had low performance (<7TB) on all WISC-III subtests, however the difference between the two groups was found to be statistically significant on three subtests: "Vocabulary" (p=0.014), Arithmetic (p=0.006), and "Information" (p=0.005). Multiple linear stepwise regression analysis showed that lower levels of the verbal IQ (β=-0.121, p=0.042) and positive history of developmental language disorder during preschool years (β=0.537, p<0.001) were independently related to the severity of reading disability. In conclusion, the findings of the present study highlight the importance of early detection of language deficits during the preschool years and timely speech and language therapy intervention.

Scaffolding the academic language of complex text: an intervention for late secondary students

BackgroundLate secondary‐level students (those in their final 2 years of secondary school) preparing for the demands of university and careers increasingly face texts written in academic language. Unfortunately, few intervention studies show how instruction can improve their reading achievement.MethodsThe 152 student participants (16–17 years old, U.S. Grade 11) were randomly assigned either to small groups receiving scaffolded instruction while reading complex texts or to a business‐as‐usual control condition. The intervention instruction included tutors supporting students' paraphrasing skills while scaffolding their academic language. Measures included pre‐test and post‐tests of standardised reading comprehension and tutors' reports of the scaffolds they used in each session. Multi‐level regression modelling estimated the causal effect of the intervention (RQ1) and the associations between the types of scaffolds and the comprehension outcome (RQ2).ResultsFor RQ1, assignment to the intervention significantly predicted a 1.20‐point increase in a standardised test widely used for entrance into U.S. universities, which includes a reading comprehension subtest reading scores (d = 0.16). No significant interactions were found by pre‐test scores, race, eligibility for school lunch subsidy or learning disabilities. For RQ2, the scaffolds measure explained 11% of the outcome variance, suggesting that scaffolding contributes significantly to comprehension outcomes. Specifically, rereading scaffolds significantly predicted lower post‐test scores, while syntax and structure scaffolds predicted higher post‐test scores.ConclusionsThis intervention presents a model for future interventions with this understudied population. A focus on complex texts with scaffolding designed to account for the complexity of academic language may be effective in supporting late secondary students' reading comprehension. In addition, certain kinds of scaffolding may be differentially effective if educators help students unpack complicated syntax and attend to the structural features of complex texts.

The reading comprehension of Grade 5 Setswana-speaking learners in rural schools in South Africa: Does home language matter?

The main aim of the study was to determine the reading comprehension performance of Grade 5 Setswana-speaking children in a rural province in South Africa, where the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) is English. Thirty-four Grade 5 learners from one province and from the same socio-economic background were selected through purposive sampling. The research design adopted was non-experimental, descriptive and quantitative in nature. Participants were required to perform reading comprehension tasks in English and Setswana. Four stories were utilised from the reading comprehension subtest of the GORT-4™ Test Form A. Two of the stories from the test were administered on completion of the English reading comprehension task. The other two stories were translated and adapted into Setswana. The mean raw scores of results obtained were calculated and comparisons at different levels were performed using t-tests. Results revealed poor overall reading comprehension scores in both languages; with scores below 55%. Furthermore, current results indicated better performance in Setswana reading comprehension, with higher scores obtained in the difficult Setswana story than in English. These findings were statistically significant (p<.05). Implications of the influence of home / first language on reading comprehension, if the LoLT is not the learner’s first language, are raised.

Effect of Vergence/Accommodative Therapy on Reading in Children with Convergence Insufficiency: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

SIGNIFICANCEThe results of this study suggest that clinicians providing vergence/accommodative therapy for the treatment of childhood convergence insufficiency should not suggest that such treatment, on average, will lead to improvements on standardized assessments of reading performance after 16 weeks of treatment.PURPOSEThe purpose of this study was to determine the effect of office-based vergence/accommodative therapy on reading performance in 9- to 14-year-old children with symptomatic convergence insufficiency.METHODSIn a multicenter clinical trial, 310 children 9 to 14 years old with symptomatic convergence insufficiency were randomized in a 2:1 ratio to 16 weeks of office-based vergence/accommodative therapy or office-based placebo therapy, respectively. The primary outcome was change in reading comprehension as measured by the reading comprehension subtest of the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Third Edition (WIAT-III) at the 16-week outcome. Secondary reading outcomes of word identification, reading fluency, listening comprehension, comprehension of extended text, and reading comprehension were also evaluated.RESULTSThe adjusted mean improvement in WIAT-III reading comprehension was 3.7 (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.6 to 4.7) standard score points in the vergence/accommodative therapy group and 3.8 (95% CI, 2.4 to 5.2) points in the placebo therapy group, with an adjusted mean group difference of −0.12 (95% CI, −1.89 to 1.66) points that was not statistically significant. No statistically significant treatment group differences were found for any of the secondary reading outcome measures.CONCLUSIONSFor children aged 9 to 14 years with symptomatic convergence insufficiency, office-based vergence/accommodative therapy was no more effective than office-based placebo therapy for improving reading performance on standardized reading tests after 16 weeks of treatment.

Standard Setting to Relate an English Reading Comprehension Test to the CEFR: A Comparison of Modified Angoff and Bookmark Methods

본 연구는 국내에서 개발된 대규모 영어 능력 시험에 포함된 독해 시험을 유럽 언어 공통기준(Common European Framework of Reference for Languages)의 읽기 척도와 연계하기 위해 전문가 패널을 구성하고 수정된 앙고프 방법과 북마크 방법을 이용하여 분할점수를 산출하였다. 유럽 언어 공통기준의 6개 능력 수준을 나누는 독해 시험의 분할점수를 산출하였고, 그 결과에 대해 내적, 외적, 절차적 준거에 따라 평가하여 타당성을 검토하였다. 수집된 점수의 분석 결과, 전문가 패널 구성원이 판단한 분할점수의 표준편차가 라운드를 거칠수록 작아지는 경향을 보였고, 수정된 앙고프 방법과 북마크 방법을 통해 얻은 분할점수 결과는 매우 유사했으며, 수준설정 이후 패널 구성원의 대다수가 최종 분할점수에 확신을 갖는다고 응답했다. 또한 대부분의 패널 구성원들이 수준설정 준비 및 진행과정, 설명이 명확하였고 판단을 내릴 때 도움이 되었다고 평가하였다.The purpose of this study is to link a reading comprehension subtest in a large-scale English proficiency test to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages(CEFR). A panel consisting of 13 members made judgments using the modified Angoff and bookmark methods. Based on these judgments, cut scores that divide test takers into the six levels of the CEFR were derived, and the validity of the cut scores was evaluated using internal, external, and procedural criteria. Analysis showed that the standard deviation of the judgments decreased across rounds; the cut scores derived from the two methods were similar; and almost all of the panel members expressed confidence in the final cut scores on the post-standard-setting survey. Furthermore, most panel members responded that they found the preparation materials, the standard setting process, and the facilitators’ explanations to be clear and helpful when making judgments.

An Exploration of Text Difficulty and Knowledge Support on Adolescents' Comprehension

ABSTRACTThe purpose of the study was to determine whether easy or challenging versions of texts, when accompanied by different types of instructional support, improved adolescents' reading comprehension, particularly for students with below‐average reading comprehension. The authors examined 293 ninth‐grade students' reading comprehension of 24 leveled texts over a 12‐week intervention in which teachers were randomly assigned to one of two instructional strategies prior to reading: K‐W‐L or Listen‐Read‐Discuss. Students were randomly assigned within classes to read either easy or challenging versions of the texts, and students' text comprehension was assessed after each lesson. General comprehension was assessed before and after the intervention using the Gates–MacGinitie Reading Comprehension subtest. The authors analyzed the texts using Lexile Analyzer, Coh‐Metrix Text Easability Assessor, and TextEvaluator to compare aspects of concreteness, formality of language, cohesion, and familiarity across versions. Findings revealed that comprehension of the easy and challenging versions was similar for most students, but students in the K‐W‐L classrooms outperformed students in the Listen‐Read‐Discuss classrooms. Only a small subset of students who read significantly below average, many of whom were identified as English learners, benefited from reading the easier versions. The Coh‐Metrix and TextEvaluator tools indicated that the easier texts had more familiar vocabulary, greater lexical cohesion, fewer academic vocabulary words, and a more conversational tone, but similar grammatical cohesion and concreteness of words. The results suggest that most students, even if struggling with comprehension, can read challenging versions of texts when accompanied by instructional support.

The Effects of Inference Instruction on the Reading Comprehension of English Learners With Reading Comprehension Difficulties

Inference skill is one of the most important predictors of reading comprehension. Still, there is little rigorous research investigating the effects of inference instruction on reading comprehension. There is no research investigating the effects of inference instruction on reading comprehension for English learners with reading comprehension difficulties. The current study investigated the effects of small-group inference instruction on the inference generation and reading comprehension of sixth- and seventh-grade students who were below-average readers ( M = 86.7, SD = 8.1). Seventy-seven percent of student participants were designated limited English proficient. Participants were randomly assigned to 24, 40-min sessions of the inference instruction intervention ( n = 39) or to business-as-usual English language arts instruction ( n = 39). Membership in the treatment condition statistically significantly predicted higher outcome score on the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test Reading Comprehension subtest ( d = 0.60, 95% confidence interval [CI] [0.16, 1.03]), but not on the other measures of inference skill.

Reasons for Gender-Related Differential Item Functioning in a College Admissions Test

ABSTRACTGender fairness in testing can be impeded by the presence of differential item functioning (DIF), which potentially causes test bias. In this study, the presence and causes of gender-related DIF were investigated with real data from 800 items answered by 250,000 test takers. DIF was examined using the Mantel–Haenszel and logistic regression procedures. Little DIF was found in the quantitative items and a moderate amount was found in the verbal items. Vocabulary items favored women if sampled from traditionally female domains but generally not vice versa if sampled from male domains. The sentence completion item format in the English reading comprehension subtest favored men regardless of content. The findings, if supported in a cross-validation study, can potentially lead to changes in how vocabulary items are sampled and in the use of the sentence completion format in English reading comprehension, thereby increasing gender fairness in the examined test.

Revisiting Sticht: The Changing Nature of the Relationship Between Listening Comprehension and Reading Comprehension Among Upper Elementary and Middle School Students Over the Last 50 Years

ABSTRACTThis study investigated the relationship between listening comprehension and reading comprehension to determine if environmental factors might be contributing to a possible change in the equalization age for these two comprehension modalities from what was theorized by Thomas Sticht. The study employed a counterbalanced design to measure the listening and reading comprehension of 223 fourth, 347 sixth, and 368 eighth grade students. The authors administered the Reading Comprehension sub-test of the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test Fourth Edition to measure both reading and listening comprehension. Mean reading scores significantly exceeded mean listening scores at grades 4, 6, and 8. In addition, the results indicate a significant relationship between listening comprehension and proficient reading. The potential influence of environmental factors on the reading/listening relationship is discussed.

The influence of properties of the test and their interactions with reader characteristics on reading comprehension: An explanatory item response study.

Component skills and discourse frameworks of reading have identified characteristics of readers and texts that influence comprehension. However, these 2 frameworks have not previously been integrated in a comprehensive and systematic way to explain performance on any standardized assessment of reading comprehension that is in widespread use across a broad developmental spectrum. The current study undertook such an integration using the reading comprehension subtest of the Gates-McGinitie Reading Tests, investigating characteristics of the test’s reading passages and comprehension questions and the component reading skills of students in middle and high school (n = 1,190) in order to determine the extent to which each of these dimensions affect test performance, both on average and through interaction with one another. The component skills of reading included word reading, reading fluency, vocabulary, background knowledge, and working memory. Test questions were coded for their processing demands, specifically the need to recall information from test and to form text-based inferences, while text passages were measured on word frequency, sentence length, text cohesion, and genre. We found that better vocabulary and background knowledge were the most important reader characteristics in accounting for reading comprehension. The processing demands of test questions were not highly predictive of item difficulty. Rather, genre was the most important passage feature in explaining item difficulty. Reader-test interactions were present, but were not pronounced. We discuss the importance of these findings as they relate to the measurement of comprehension and the integration of component skills and text-discourse models of reading. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)

The Effect of Cooperative Learning Techniques on Intermediate Iranian EFL Learners' Reading Comprehension and Reading Strategies

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of Cooperative Learning techniques on Intermediate Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension, and reading strategies. In order to do this 90 Iranian EFL learners took, Preliminary English Test (PET), at the start for the researcher homogenize them regarding their general English proficiency. After that, 60 learners whose scores were one standard deviation above and below the mean were selected and were divided into 2groups; Experimental, and Control. Then their homogeneity regarding their reading comprehension was checked through the PET reading comprehension subtest. Afterwards, their reading strategies before the treatment were compared using MARSI questionnaire. During the twelve sessions of treatment the experimental group received the Cooperative Learning Techniques while working on their reading comprehension, and the control group, received traditional teaching without focus on CL techniques. In this study the researcher did not teach reading strategies to the learners. In order to investigate the result of the research a one way MANOVA sample test was used to see the effect of cooperative learning techniques on intermediate Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension, and reading strategies, and the result has shown that cooperative learning techniques had a significant positive effect on intermediate Iranian EFL learners' reading comprehension, and reading strategies.

Factors affecting medication adherence in elderly people.

BackgroundLittle is known about the functional health literacy (FHL) associated with medication adherence in elderly patients. The aim of this study was to examine the FHL among older adults and identify influencing factors that can predict medication adherence.MethodsThis was a cross-sectional survey. Participants (n=160) aged 65 years and older were selected from outpatient clinics of 3 tertiary care hospitals, 6 community pharmacies, and 2 senior centers between November 1 and 30, 2014. The participants’ FHL was measured using the Korean Functional Health Literacy Test, which consists of 15 items including 8 numeracy and 7 reading comprehension items. Medication adherence was measured by the Adherence to Refills and Medication Scale. Descriptive statistics, chi-square or Fisher’s exact test, and multiple regression analyses were used to analyze the data.ResultsThe mean score of the total FHL was 7.72±3.51 (range 0–15). The percentage of the total number of correct answers for the reading comprehension subtest and numeracy subtest were 48.1% and 54.4%, respectively. Among 160 participants, 52.5% showed low adherence to medication. The factors affecting medication adherence included the patient’s degree of satisfaction with the service (β=−0.215, P=0.022), sufficient explanation of medication counseling (β=−0.335, P=0.000), education level (β=−0.153, P=0.045), health-related problems (β=−0.239, P=0.004), and dosing frequency (β=0.189, P=0.018).ConclusionIn this study, we found medication adherence of elderly patients was associated with education level, health-related problems, dosing frequency, satisfaction with patient counseling, and explanation of medication, but no association was found with FHL. Pharmacists should consider elderly patients’ individual characteristics such as educational background and specific patient-related health problems, provide sufficient information and explanation of medication, and ensure patient satisfaction with the counseling.

Early language mediates the relations between preschool inattention and school-age reading achievement.

Early inattention is associated with later reading problems in children, but the mechanism by which this occurs is unclear. We investigated whether the negative relation between preschoolers' ADHD symptoms and 8-year-old reading achievement is directly related to the severity of inattention or is mediated by early language skills. Children (n = 150; 76% boys) were evaluated at 3 time points: preschool (T1), mean (SD) age = 4.24 (.49) years; 1 year later (T2), mean (SD) age = 5.28 (.50) years; and during school age (T3), mean (SD) age = 8.61 (.31) years. At T1, parents' Kiddie-SADS responses were dimensionalized to reflect ADHD severity. Children completed the Language domain of the NEPSY (i.e., A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment) at T1 and again at T2. At T3, children completed the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Second Edition Word Reading, Pseudoword Decoding, Reading Comprehension, and Spelling subtests, and their teachers completed ratings of Reading and Written Expression performance in school. The mediating effect of T2 Language on the relation between preschool Inattention and age 8 Reading was examined using the nonparametric bootstrapping procedure, while controlling for T1 Language. Language ability at T2 mediated the path from preschool inattention (but not hyperactivity/impulsivity) to 8-year-old reading achievement (both test scores and ratings) after controlling for preschoolers' language ability. Early attentional deficits may negatively impact school-age reading outcomes by compromising the development of language skills, which in turn imperils later reading achievement. Screening children with attentional problems for language impairment, as well as implementing early intervention for both attentional and language problems may be critical to promote reading achievement during school years. (PsycINFO Database Record