Photosynthetic Electron Transport Reactions Research Articles

Impact of growth light environment on oxygen sensitivity in rice: Pseudo-first-order response of photosystem I photoinhibition to O2 partial pressure.

Photosynthetic organisms generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) during photosynthetic electron transport reactions on the thylakoid membranes within both photosystems (PSI and PSII), leading to the impairment of photosynthetic activity, known as photoinhibition. In PSI, ROS production has been suggested to follow Michaelis-Menten- or second-order reaction-dependent kinetics in response to changes in the partial pressure of O2 . However, it remains unclear whether ROS-mediated PSI photoinhibition follows the kinetics mentioned above. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the ROS production kinetics from the aspect of PSI photoinhibition in vivo. For this research objective, we investigated the O2 dependence of PSI photoinhibition by examining intact rice leaves grown under varying photon flux densities. Subsequently, we found that the degree of O2 -dependent PSI photoinhibition linearly increased in response to the increase in O2 partial pressure. Furthermore, we observed that the higher photon flux density on plant growth reduced the O2 sensitivity of PSI photoinhibition. Based on the obtained data, we investigated the O2 -dependent kinetics of PSI photoinhibition by model fitting analysis to elucidate the mechanism of PSI photoinhibition in leaves grown under various photon flux densities. Remarkably, we found that the pseudo-first-order reaction formula successfully replicated the O2 -dependent PSI photoinhibition kinetics in intact leaves. These results suggest that ROS production, which triggers PSI photoinhibition, occurs by an electron-leakage reaction from electron carriers within PSI, consistent with previous in vitro studies.

The ferredoxin/thioredoxin pathway constitutes an indispensable redox-signaling cascade for light-dependent reduction of chloroplast stromal proteins

To ensure efficient photosynthesis, chloroplast proteins need to be flexibly regulated under fluctuating light conditions. Thiol-based redox regulation plays a key role in reductively activating several chloroplast proteins in a light-dependent manner. The ferredoxin (Fd)/thioredoxin (Trx) pathway has long been recognized as the machinery that transfers reducing power generated by photosynthetic electron transport reactions to redox-sensitive target proteins; however, its biological importance remains unclear, because the complete disruption of the Fd/Trx pathway in plants has been unsuccessful to date. Especially, recent identifications of multiple redox-related factors in chloroplasts, as represented by the NADPH-Trx reductase C, have raised a controversial proposal that other redox pathways work redundantly with the Fd/Trx pathway. To address these issues directly, we used CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing to create Arabidopsis mutant plants in which the activity of the Fd/Trx pathway was completely defective. The mutants generated showed severe growth inhibition. Importantly, these mutants almost entirely lost the ability to reduce several redox-sensitive proteins in chloroplast stroma, including four Calvin-Benson cycle enzymes, NADP-malate dehydrogenase, and Rubisco activase, under light conditions. These striking phenotypes were further accompanied by abnormally developed chloroplasts and a drastic decline in photosynthetic efficiency. These results indicate that the Fd/Trx pathway is indispensable for the light-responsive activation of diverse stromal proteins and photoautotrophic growth of plants. Our data also suggest that the ATP synthase is exceptionally reduced by other pathways in a redundant manner. This study provides an important insight into how the chloroplast redox-regulatory system operates invivo.

Effects of heat stress on photosystem II activity and antioxidant enzymes in two maize cultivars.

The main reason for the maize genotype "DKC7221" to be heat tolerant is to have higher photosynthetic activity under heat stress conditions. The genotype "P3167" is sensitive to high temperature because of the heat-induced inhibition in photosynthetic electron transport reactions. In the present study, the effect of heat stress (45ºC for 20min) on some physiological changes was investigated through a chlorophyll afluorescence technique, and some endogenous resistance mechanisms (activities of some antioxidant enzymes, free proline, and reduced ascorbate contents) in two maize cultivars (Zea mays L. cvs. P3167 and DKC7221). Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements demonstrated that heat stress led to the reduction in the efficiency of the Hill reaction, accumulation of inactive reaction centers, inhibition of electron flow from reaction centers to the plastoquinone pool, and induction of non-photochemical dissipation of absorbed light energy. Changes in Φo/(1 - Φo), SFIABS and PIABS indicated that electron transport reactions in P3167 were almost completely inhibited by heat stress. In DKC7221, however, photosynthetic electron transport reactions were maintained under heat stress conditions. As a result of impairment in the photosynthetic efficiency in P3167 under heat stress, oxidative stress appeared as shown by lower antioxidant activity, accumulation of H2O2, malondialdehyde, and formazon and photooxidative injuries in chlorophyll pigments in the leaf tissue. DKC7221, on the other hand, had a higher antioxidant efficiency and lower oxidative damage under heat stress. FeSOD activity was found to be responsible for the dismutation of superoxide radicals in both maize genotypes under heat stress. As a result, it may be concluded that the genotype DKC7221 is more tolerant to heat stress than P3167.

Photorespiration Coupled With CO2 Assimilation Protects Photosystem I From Photoinhibition Under Moderate Poly(Ethylene Glycol)-Induced Osmotic Stress in Rice.

Photorespiration coupled with CO2 assimilation is thought to act as a defense system against photoinhibition caused by osmotic stress. In the present study, we examined whether such a mechanism is operative for the protection of photosystem I (PSI) in rice (Oryza sativa L.) including transgenic plants with decreased and increased Rubisco content (RBCS-antisense and RBCS-sense plants, respectively). All plants were hydroponically grown and moderate osmotic stress was imposed using hydroponic culture solutions containing poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) at 16% or 20% (w/v) for 2 d. In wild-type plants, the rates of CO2 assimilation (A) were significantly decreased by the PEG treatment, whereas the photorespiration activity estimated from the rates of electron transport in photosystem II (PSII) and A were not affected. The maximal quantum efficiency of PSII (F v/F m) and the maximal activity of PSI (P m) were also not affected. In RBCS-antisense plants, A and the estimated photorespiration activity were considerably lower than those in wild-type plants in the presence or absence of the PEG treatment. P m and both F v/F m and P m decreased in the 16% PEG-treated and 20% PEG-treated RBCS-antisense plants, respectively. Thus, the decrease in Rubisco content led to the photoinhibition of PSI and PSII, indicating the importance of photorespiration coupled with CO2 assimilation for the protection of PSI from moderate PEG-induced osmotic stress. It was also shown that PSI was more sensitive to osmotic stress than PSII. In the PEG-treated wild-type and RBCS-antisense plants, osmotic-stress responses of the photosynthetic electron transport reactions upstream of PSI led to the oxidation of P700, which is thought to prevent PSI from over-reduction. Although such a defense system operated, it was not sufficient for the protection of PSI in RBCS-antisense plants. In addition, there were no large differences in the parameters measured between wild-type and RBCS-sense plants, as overproduction of Rubisco did not increase photorespiration activity.

Responses of the Photosynthetic Electron Transport Reactions Stimulate the Oxidation of the Reaction Center Chlorophyll of Photosystem I, P700, under Drought and High Temperatures in Rice.

It is of interest how photosynthetic electron transport (PET) reactions respond to excess light energy caused by the combination of drought stress and high temperatures. Since such information is scarcely available for photosystem I (PSI), this question was explored in rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants subjected to drought stress, using culture solutions that contain poly(ethylene glycol) at different concentrations under two day/night temperature regimes. At 27/22 °C (day/night), drought stress led to the oxidation of the reaction center of the chlorophyll of PSI (P700), and also led to decreases in the quantum efficiencies of photosystem II (PSII) and PSI, and a reduction of the primary quinone electron acceptor of PSI. Such drought stress responses were wholly stimulated at 35/30 °C. These parameters were strongly correlated with each other and were minimally affected by temperature. These results indicate that the drought stress responses of the respective PET reactions are closely associated with each other in the oxidization of P700 and that such responses are stimulated at high temperatures. The underlying mechanisms of these phenomena were discussed. While P700 oxidation is thought to suppress reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, PSI photoinhibition was observed under severe stress conditions, implying that P700 oxidation is not sufficient for the protection of PSI under drought stress.

Photosynthesis—European Congress on Photosynthesis Research

Photosynthesis—European Congress on Photosynthesis Research

A dichotomy resolved: Plant growth can control the rate of starch accumulation.

A dichotomy resolved: Plant growth can control the rate of starch accumulation.

Natural Variation of Cold Deacclimation Correlates with Variation of Cold-Acclimation of the Plastid Antioxidant System in Arabidopsis thaliana Accessions.

Temperature variations impact on the balance between photosynthetic electron transport and electron-consuming assimilation reactions and transiently increase generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Previous studies demonstrated that the expression of C-repeat binding factors (CBFs), which activate cold acclimation reactions, respond to chloroplast ROS signals and that cold deacclimation is partly halted for days after the transfer of acclimated plants to optimal growth conditions in four Arabidopsis accessions from cold-continental habitats. We hypothesized that these accessions differ from others in the regulation of the plastid antioxidant system (PAS). In the present study, we compared the expression intensity of the 12 most prominent PAS genes for peroxidases, superoxide dismutase and low molecular weight antioxidant regenerating enzymes in 10 Arabidopsis accessions with regulation of CBF and COR (cold regulated genes) transcript levels and cold-regulated metabolite levels prior to cold, after 2 week long cold acclimation and during the first 3 days of deacclimation. In the accessions with prolonged activation of cold responses, by trend, weaker induction of various cold-inducible PAS genes and stronger decreases in the expression of negatively cold-regulated PAS genes were observed. Low PAS gene expression delayed the post-cold decrease in H2O2 levels after transfer of the plants from cold to optimal growth conditions. We conclude that weaker expression of various PAS genes in the cold is an adapted strategy of the Arabidopsis accessions N14, N13, Ms-0, and Kas-1 to avoid full inactivation of cold-responses in the first days after the end of the cold period.

Photosynthesis and growth responses of mustard (Brassica juncea L. cv Pusa Bold) plants to free air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE).

Increased atmospheric [CO2] is likely to affect photosynthesis, plant growth, and yield potential of plants. Mustard (Brassica juncea L.) is an important oil seed crop that is widely grown in India. Therefore, the impact of elevated [CO2] (585μmolmol(-1)) on pigment and protein content, chlorophyll a fluorescence, photosynthetic electron transport reactions, CO2 assimilation, biomass production, and seed yield potential was measured in B. juncea cv Pusa Bold, grown inside free air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE) rings installed on the campus of Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India. Plants were grown for three consecutive winter seasons (2010-2013), in ambient (385μmolmol(-1)) or elevated [CO2], in field conditions. Elevated [CO2] had no significant effect on the minimal chlorophyll fluorescence (F 0), while the quantum efficiency of Photosystem II, measured as variable fluorescence (F v = F m-F 0) to maximum fluoresence (F m), increased by 3%. Electron transport rate, photosystem I, photosystem II, and whole chain electron transport rates increased by 8% in elevated [CO2]. However, the net photosynthesis rate increased by ≈50% in three growing seasons under elevated [CO2] condition. The stomatal conductance and transpiration rate decreased resulting in higher photosynthetic water use efficiency. The photosynthesizing surface, i.e., leaf area index substantially increased leading to higher biomass and seed yield under elevated [CO2] condition. Acclimatory downregulation of photosynthesis and plant productivity was not observed in three consecutive growing years suggesting that in the absence of nutrient limitation, B. juncea is highly responsive to elevated CO2 whose yield potential shall increase in changing climatic conditions.

Thylakoid Membrane Maturation and PSII Activation Are Linked in Greening Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 Cells

Thylakoid membranes are typical and essential features of both chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. While they are crucial for phototrophic growth of cyanobacterial cells, biogenesis of thylakoid membranes is not well understood yet. Dark-grown Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 cells contain only rudimentary thylakoid membranes but still a relatively high amount of phycobilisomes, inactive photosystem II and active photosystem I centers. After shifting dark-grown Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 cells into the light, "greening" of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 cells, i.e. thylakoid membrane formation and recovery of photosynthetic electron transport reactions, was monitored. Complete restoration of a typical thylakoid membrane system was observed within 24 hours after an initial lag phase of 6 to 8 hours. Furthermore, activation of photosystem II complexes and restoration of a functional photosynthetic electron transport chain appears to be linked to the biogenesis of organized thylakoid membrane pairs.

Running a little late: chloroplast Fe status and the circadian clock

In plants, the circadian clock is known to regulate a wide variety of processes and it is clear that the clock‐conferred ability of plants to anticipate daily changes in environmental conditions confers significant fitness advantages. Two new studies highlight complex reciprocal interactions between the clock and chloroplast iron status and provide significant new insight into the role of iron in control of circadian period length. Iron (Fe) uptake and homeostasis are essential for plant growth and survival. These processes are carefully regulated to ensure adequate supplies of Fe to maintain metabolism while avoiding the negative effects of Fe over‐accumulation. Indeed, it is clear that Fe uptake, efflux, long‐distance transport and storage are controlled via transcriptional and post‐transcriptional regulatory mechanisms and in recent years, a number of new components of the Fe‐deficiency signalling cascade have been identified (Walker and Connolly, 2008; Palmer and Guerinot, 2009). In plants, the chloroplast represents a major sink for Fe; approximately 90% of the Fe found in leaves is contained within plastids, where it is associated with the photosystems, haem and chlorophyll. In addition, significant amounts of Fe are stored in chloroplasts in the form of ferritin‐Fe. Chloroplast Fe homeostasis poses significant challenges owing, in part, to the fact that while Fe is essential for chloroplast function, excess Fe participates in the generation of hydroxyl radicals, which may exacerbate oxidative stress associated with normal functioning of photosynthetic electron transport reactions. It is not yet known how plants sense Fe but it is assumed that photosynthetic organisms possess a mechanism to gauge chloroplast Fe status. Circadian rhythms are endogenous, ∼24 h rhythms that are generated by the circadian clock. The clock controls expression of ∼30% of …

A Chloroplast Light-Regulated Oxidative Sensor for Moderate Light Intensity in Arabidopsis

The transition from dark to light involves marked changes in the redox reactions of photosynthetic electron transport and in chloroplast stromal enzyme activity even under mild light and growth conditions. Thus, it is not surprising that redox regulation is used to dynamically adjust and coordinate the stromal and thylakoid compartments. While oxidation of regulatory proteins is necessary for the regulation, the identity and the mechanism of action of the oxidizing pathway are still unresolved. Here, we studied the oxidation of a thylakoid-associated atypical thioredoxin-type protein, ACHT1, in the Arabidopsis thaliana chloroplast. We found that after a brief period of net reduction in plants illuminated with moderate light intensity, a significant oxidation reaction of ACHT1 arises and counterbalances its reduction. Interestingly, ACHT1 oxidation is driven by 2-Cys peroxiredoxin (Prx), which in turn eliminates peroxides. The ACHT1 and 2-Cys Prx reaction characteristics in plants further indicated that ACHT1 oxidation is linked with changes in the photosynthetic production of peroxides. Our findings that plants with altered redox poise of the ACHT1 and 2-Cys Prx pathway show higher nonphotochemical quenching and lower photosynthetic electron transport infer a feedback regulatory role for this pathway.

Computer Simulation of Protein-Protein Association in Photosynthesis

The paper is devoted to the method of computer simulation of protein interactions taking part in photosynthetic electron transport reactions. Using this method we have studied kinetic characteristics of protein-protein complex formation for four pairs of proteins involved in photosynthesis at a variety of ionic strength values. Computer simulations describe non-monotonic dependences of complex formation rates on the ionic strength as the result of long-range electrostatic interactions. Calculations confirm that the decrease in the association second order rate constant at low values of the ionic strength is caused by the protein pairs spending more time in “wrong” orientations which do not satisfy the docking conditions and so do not form the final complex capable of the electron transfer.

New direct dynamic models of protein interactions coupled to photosynthetic electron transport reactions.

This review covers the methods of computer simulation of protein interactions taking part in photosynthetic electron transport reactions. A direct multiparticle simulation method that simulates reactions describing interactions of ensembles of molecules in the heterogeneous interior of a cell is developed. In the models, protein molecules move according to the laws of Brownian dynamics, mutually orient themselves in the electrical field, and form complexes in the 3D scene. The method allows us to visualize the processes of molecule interactions and to calculate the rate constants for protein complex formation reactions in the solution and in the photosynthetic membrane. Three-dimensional multiparticle computer models for simulating the complex formation kinetics for plastocyanin with photosystem I and cytochrome bf complex, and ferredoxin with photosystem I and ferredoxin:NADP+-reductase are considered. Effects of ionic strength are featured for wild type and mutant proteins. The computer multiparticle models describe nonmonotonic dependences of complex formation rates on the ionic strength as the result of long-range electrostatic interactions.

Effects of 60Co γ radiation on thylakoid membrane functions in Anacystis nidulans

In photosynthetic organisms oxidative stress is known to result in photoinactivation of photosynthetic machinery. We investigated effects of 60Co γ radiation, which generates oxidative stress, on thylakoid structure and function in cyanobacteria. Cells of unicellular, non-nitrogen fixing cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans ( Synechococcus sp.) showed D 10 value of 257 Gy of 60Co γ radiation. When measured immediately after exposure, cells irradiated with 1500 Gy (lethal dose) of 60Co γ radiation did not show any differences in photosynthetic functions such as CO 2 fixation, O 2 evolution and partial reactions of photosynthetic electron transport in comparison to unirradiated cells. Incubation of irradiated cells for 24 h in light or dark resulted in decline in photosynthesis. The decline in photosynthesis was higher in the cells incubated in light as compared to the cells incubated in dark. Among the partial reactions of electron transport, only PSII activity declined drastically after incubation of irradiated samples. This was also supported by the analysis of membrane functions using thermoluminescence. Exposure of cyanobacteria to high doses of 60Co γ radiation did not affect the thylakoid membrane ultrastructure immediately after exposure as shown by electron microscopy. The level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in irradiated cells was 20 times higher as compared to control. In irradiated cells de novo protein synthesis was reduced considerably immediately after irradiation. Treatment of cells with tetracycline also affected photosynthesis as in irradiated cells. The results showed that photoinhibition of photosynthetic apparatus after incubation of irradiated cells was probably augmented due to reduced protein synthesis. Active photosynthesis is known to require uninterrupted replenishment of some of the proteins involved in electron transport chain. The defective thylakoid membrane biogenesis may be leading to photosynthetic decline post-irradiation.

A Chlorophyll a/b-binding Protein Homolog That Is Induced by Iron Deficiency Is Associated with Enlarged Photosystem I Units in the Eucaryotic Alga Dunaliella salina

Adaptation of the halotolerant alga Dunaliella salina to iron deprivation involves extensive changes of chloroplast morphology, photosynthetic activities, and induction of a major 45-kDa chloroplast protein termed Tidi. Partial amino acid sequencing of proteolytic peptides suggested that Tidi resembles chlorophyll a/b-binding proteins which compose light-harvesting antenna complexes (LHC) (Varsano, T., Kaftan, D., and Pick, U. (2003) J. Plant Nutr. 26, 2197-2210). Here we show that Tidi shares the highest amino acid sequence similarity with light-harvesting I chlorophyll a/b-binding proteins from higher plants but has an extended proline-rich N-terminal domain. The accumulation of Tidi is reversed by iron supplementation, and its level is inversely correlated with photosystem I (PS-I) reaction center proteins. In native gel electrophoresis, Tidi co-migrates with enlarged PS-I-LHC-I super-complexes. Single particle electron microscopy analysis revealed that PS-I units from iron-deficient cells are larger (31 and 37 nm in diameter) than PS-I units from control cells (22 nm). The 77 K chlorophyll fluorescence emission spectra of isolated complexes suggest that the Tidi-LHC-I antenna are functionally coupled to the reaction centers of PS-I. These findings indicate that Tidi acts as an accessory antenna of PS-I. The enlargement of PS-I antenna in algae and in cyanobacteria under iron deprivation suggests a common limitation that requires rebalancing of the energy distribution between the two photosystems.

Chloride and calcium in Photosystem II: from effects to enigma(*).

This minireview focuses on the early evidence for roles of chloride and calcium ions in reactions of photosynthetic electron transport and on the reluctance with which an essential function of these inorganic ions in the process of water oxidation was accepted. For example, Daniel Arnon's group initially refuted the conclusion of Otto Warburg, the discoverer of a 'chloride effect,' that chloride was a 'coenzyme.' Their reasoning was that chloride had not been shown to be an essential mineral nutrient of plants. In the case of calcium, the problem was that the first 'calcium effects' had been seen with preparations from cyanobacteria rather than from green plants. While today the status of calcium and chloride as essential participants in the process of water oxidation is rarely disputed, the nature of their involvement still eludes all experimental inquiries. Substantial progress in this respect may come from recent refinements of the application of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy to the study of photosynthetic water oxidation.

A model of isoprene emission based on energetic requirements for isoprene synthesis and leaf photosynthetic properties for Liquidambar and Quercus

ABSTRACTWe present a physiological model of isoprene (2‐methyl‐1,3‐butadiene) emission which considers the cost for isoprene synthesis, and the production of reductive equivalents in reactions of photosynthetic electron transport for Liquidambar styraciflua L. and for North American and European deciduous temperate Quercus species. In the model, we differentiate between leaf morphology (leaf dry mass per area, MA, g m−2) altering the content of enzymes of isoprene synthesis pathway per unit leaf area, and biochemical potentials of average leaf cells determining their capacity for isoprene emission. Isoprene emission rate per unit leaf area (μmol m−2 s−1) is calculated as the product of MA, the fraction of total electron flow used for isoprene synthesis (ɛ, mol mol−1), the rate of photosynthetic electron transport (J) per unit leaf dry mass (Jm, μmol g−1 s−1), and the reciprocal of the electron cost of isoprene synthesis [mol isoprene (mol electrons−1)]. The initial estimate of electron cost of isoprene synthesis is calculated according to the 1‐deoxy‐ D‐xylulose‐5‐phosphate pathway recently discovered in the chloroplasts, and is further modified to account for extra electron requirements because of photorespiration. The rate of photosynthetic electron transport is calculated by a process‐based leaf photosynthesis model. A satisfactory fit to the light‐dependence of isoprene emission is obtained using the light response curve of J, and a single value of ɛ, that is dependent on the isoprene synthase activity in the leaves. Temperature dependence of isoprene emission is obtained by combining the temperature response curves of photosynthetic electron transport, the shape of which is related to long‐term temperature during leaf growth and development, and the specific activity of isoprene synthase, which is considered as essentially constant for all plants. The results of simulations demonstrate that the variety of temperature responses of isoprene emission observed within and among the species in previous studies may be explained by different optimum temperatures of J and/or limited maximum fraction of electrons used for isoprene synthesis. The model provides good fits to diurnal courses of field measurements of isoprene emission, and is also able to describe the changes in isoprene emission under stress conditions, for example, the decline in isoprene emission in water‐stressed leaves.

The regulation of photosynthetic electron transport during nutrient deprivation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

The light-saturated rate of photosynthetic O2 evolution in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii declined by approximately 75% on a per-cell basis after 4 d of P starvation or 1 d of S starvation. Quantitation of the partial reactions of photosynthetic electron transport demonstrated that the light-saturated rate of photosystem (PS) I activity was unaffected by P or S limitation, whereas light-saturated PSII activity was reduced by more than 50%. This decline in PSII activity correlated with a decline in both the maximal quantum efficiency of PSII and the accumulation of the secondary quinone electron acceptor of PSII nonreducing centers (PSII centers capable of performing a charge separation but unable to reduce the plastoquinone pool). In addition to a decline in the light-saturated rate of O2 evolution, there was reduced efficiency of excitation energy transfer to the reaction centers of PSII (because of dissipation of absorbed light energy as heat and because of a transition to state 2). These findings establish a common suite of alterations in photosynthetic electron transport that results in decreased linear electron flow when C. reinhardtii is limited for either P or S. It was interesting that the decline in the maximum quantum efficiency of PSII and the accumulation of the secondary quinone electron acceptor of PSII nonreducing centers were regulated specifically during S-limited growth by the SacI gene product, which was previously shown to be critical for the acclimation of C. reinhardtii to S limitation (J.P. Davies, F.H. Yildiz, and A.R. Grossman [1996] EMBO J 15: 2150-2159).

Effects of N,N′-Dibutylurea on Photosynthetic Electron Transport Reactions in Isolated Chloroplasts

N,N′-dibutylurea, a secondary, accumulative degradation product of the fungicide benomyl, was investigated to determine its effects on the electron transport system in isolated chloroplasts. Dibutylurea was found to inhibit photosynthetic oxygen evolution, photo-induced reduction of ferricyanide, and reduction of NADP. It produced a sigmoidal dose response for inhibition of ferricyanide reduction with an I50of 167 μM. Other symmetric alkylureas were found to only weakly inhibit ferricyanide reduction regardless of the dose applied. Dibutylurea produced a dose response for electron transport inhibition when applied to KCN/Hg-inhibited chloroplasts and inhibited NADP reduction in the presence of 1 μM DBMIB and a TMPD bypass. These results suggest dibutylurea inhibits photosynthetic electron transport in a manner similar to known PSII inhibitors, with the possible site of action in PSII on the reducing side of the QBprotein complex.