Raw Soybean Research Articles

Bacillus amyloliquefaciens SS1-fermented soybean meal influenced the flesh texture of Nile tilapia: Involvement of microbial metabolite propionate

Microbial fermentation is recognized to improve feed utilization and health of farmed animals. However, its effect on flesh quality and the underlying mechanisms remain understudied. Herein, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens SS1, a probiotic strain isolated from the intestinal tract of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) was used to ferment soybean meal (FSM). Two tilapia experimental diets containing FSM and raw soybean meal were formulated for an eight-week feeding trial. Results showed that dietary FSM significantly increased the carcass ratio of fish, while there was no significant difference in weight gain or feed utilization between the two dietary treatments. Texture profile analysis showed that muscle springiness was improved by the FSM diet. There was no discernible difference in myofiber morphology between the two treatments. However, the FSM-fed fish had significantly lower muscle lipid contents than the control, accompanied by suppressed lipogenesis, while lipolysis was promoted both in muscle and liver tissues. Interestingly, the FSM diet modified gut microbial community, resulting in increased propionate concentrations. By establishing a high-fat model using primary hepatocytes of tilapia, we demonstrated the role of propionate in reducing lipid accumulation. Our finding highlights the emerging roles of gut-derived metabolites in affecting flesh quality by modifying host metabolism, providing a foundation for improving the flesh quality of aquaculture fish starting from the feed.

Comparison of Pediococcus pentosaceus YC64-fermented soybean meal and raw soybean meal in diets for Nile tilapia: Growth performance, feed utilization, and intestine health

Fermentation is a promising approach for improving the utilization of soybean meal (SM) by aquaculture fish, and the strain is the core of microbial fermentation processes. Herein, Pediococcus pentosaceus YC64, an autochthonous probiotic isolated from the intestine of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), was applied to the fermentation of raw SM. In an eight-week feeding trial, tilapia juveniles were divided into two treatments fed on diets with 0 % (Control) and 100 % of SM protein replaced by fermented SM (FSM). Results showed that solid-state fermentation improved SM quality indicated by increased acid-soluble protein contents. Fish fed the FSM diet had significantly higher weight gain, feed efficiency, and protein efficiency compared to those fed the SM diet. Furthermore, whole-body protein content significantly increased in the FSM-fed fish, accompanied with the increased amino acid transport and reduced protein catabolism. Texture profile analysis indicated that fish fed the FSM diet had reduced muscle hardness compared with the control, which was associated with changes in collagen deposition and myofiber development. Moreover, feeding an FSM diet enhanced goblet cell proliferation and stimulated mucin secretion, ultimately leading to improved intestinal tight junctions and reduced inflammatory response. Besides, the FSM diet feeding altered intestinal microbiota community, characterized by increased abundance of Pediococcus. Overall, P. pentosaceus YC64 exhibits promise as a fermentation strain in the production of FSM. The FSM performed better than SM in improving the growth performance, feed utilization, and intestine health of Nile tilapia.

Validation of Molecular Markers for Low Kunitz Trypsin Inhibitor Content in European Soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) Germplasm.

Trypsin inhibitors (TI) in raw soybean grain, mainly represented by the Kunitz trypsin inhibitor protein (KTI), prevent the normal activity of the digestive enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin in humans and monogastric livestock. The inactivation of TI is achieved through costly and time-consuming heat treatment. Thermal processing also impairs the solubility and availability of the soybean grain protein. Therefore, the genetic elimination of KTI has been proposed as a suitable alternative to heat treatment. The aim of this study was to screen the collection of European soybean cultivars with six genetic markers (one SSR marker and five SNP markers) previously proposed as tightly linked to the KTI3 gene encoding the major Kunitz trypsin inhibitor seed protein of soybean and validate their usability for marker-assisted selection (MAS). The six markers were validated on a subset of 38 cultivars with wide variability in KTI content and in the F2 and F3:5 progenies of two crosses between the known high- and low-KTI cultivars. Three genetic markers (SSR Satt228 and two SNP markers, Gm08_45317135_T/G and Gm08_45541906_A/C) were significantly associated with KTI content in a subset of 38 cultivars. Low-KTI alleles were detected in both low- and high-KTI genotypes and vice versa, high-KTI alleles were found in both high- and low-KTI genotypes, indicating a tight but not perfect association of these markers with the KTI3 gene. The genetic marker SSR Satt228 showed a significant association with KTI content in the F2 progeny, while the SNP markers Gm08_45317135_T/G and Gm08_45541906_A/C allowed significant discrimination between progeny with high- vs. low-KTI progenies in the F3:5 generation. These three markers could be applied in MAS for low-KTI content but not without the additional phenotyping step to extract the desired low-KTI genotypes.

Influence of extruded soybean meal with different fat contents and varying oleic acid content on floating fish feed quality and composition

Soybean meal (SBM) is the most widely used source of high-quality plant protein within the feed industry. Raw soybeans are conventionally processed to reduce antinutritional factors, enhance protein bioavailability and improve the overall quality of the final feed product. New high-oleic (HO) cultivars with enhanced unsaturated fatty acids are being utilized in the production of HO SBM for use in the animal feed industry. However, no studies to date have examined the impact of HO SBM on feed formulation and processing of aquaculture feeds. Therefore, we aimed to determine the quality of feed for juvenile domesticated striped bass (Morone saxatilis) using SBM prepared from HO or normal-oleic (NO) soybeans and extrusion-expeller processing. The following four soybean meals were used in our experimental diets: solvent-extracted defatted normal oleic (SENO), full-fat normal oleic (FFNO), extruded-expelled defatted normal oleic (EENO), or full-fat high oleic (FFHO). These meals replaced half of the fishmeal (FM) normally included in a nutritionally complete marine finfish diet. Physico-chemical feed variables and chemical composition were determined during feed production. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and means were separated using Tukey’s t-test. The specific mechanical energy of the diet was reduced with the addition of full-fat SBMs during the extrusion process. All finished fish diets were of similar high quality with high pellet durability index and protein content (P > 0.05). This suggested that using different types SBM, including high oleic, to replace 50 % of the fish meal in a floating feed for juvenile domesticated striped bass does not adversely affect the feed quality or nutritional content.

Effects of Partially Replacing the Commercial Soybean Meal, With A Soaked and Boiled Raw Full-Fat Soybean in Broiler Diets

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of partially replacing the commercial soybean meal (SBM) with a home-treated, locally produced raw-full fat soybean (RFFSB) in the diets of broilers. A 3×2×2+1 factorial arrangement was used to conduct this feeding trial. A test ingredient (RFFSB) was differently soaked (0, 6 or 12 hrs), drained, boiled (25 or 35 min) and sundried. Following this, it was hammered to pass through a 0.2-mm sieve, then 12 experimental diets were formulated, replacing the SBM by such a home-treated-RFFSB at 50 or 75%. The control diet didn’t contain any RFFSBN. Totally 13 experimental diets were prepared and every treatment was replicated 3 times and 10 chicks per replicate. The results revealed that replacing the commercial SBM by a treated RFFSB had no significant interaction effects on any measured parameter. However, soaking and then boiling it (RFFSB) had significant (P<0.05) interaction effect on the BWTG (1-13d and 14-28d). When increasing the soaking time, the FI (feed intake), BWTG (body weight gain) and feed efficiency were significantly (P<0.05) decreased. When increasing the boiling duration, both FI and feed efficiency (14-28d) were improved. But, when increasing the replacement rate of RFFSB, the feed efficiency was deteriorated. Broilers fed on both control and diets, containing a non-soaked RFFSB had higher (P<0.05) BWTG (1-13d). Birds fed on diets containing RFFSB that was soaked for the longest period (12 hrs) had significantly lower BWTG. Birds fed on diets, containing prolonged boiling duration had significantly (P<0.05) higher BWTG and feed efficiency. There was no interaction (P> 0.05) effect on both carcass yield and cut-products. Neither increasing a boiling time nor a replacement rate had (P<0.05) any influence on the WT (weight) of the carcass. Birds on both control and on non-soaked RFFSB diets had better WT of carcass products. There was no interaction (P>0.05) effect on organ developments. However, increasing the soaking-duration significantly (P<0.05) reduced the organ developments. Therefore, it is concluded that commercial SBM can be replaced by a non-soaked, but boiled raw soybean in diets of broilers.

Bowman-Birk Inhibitor Mutants of Soybean Generated by CRISPR-Cas9 Reveal Drastic Reductions in Trypsin and Chymotrypsin Inhibitor Activities.

Despite the high quality of soybean protein, raw soybeans and soybean meal cannot be directly included in animal feed mixtures due to the presence of Kunitz (KTi) and Bowman-Birk protease inhibitors (BBis), which reduces animal productivity. Heat treatment can substantially inactivate trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors (BBis), but such treatment is energy-intensive, adds expense, and negatively impacts the quality of seed proteins. As an alternative approach, we have employed CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing to create mutations in BBi genes to drastically lower the protease inhibitor content in soybean seed. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation was used to generate several stable transgenic soybean events. These independent CRISPR/Cas9 events were examined in comparison to wild-type plants using Sanger sequencing, proteomic analysis, trypsin/chymotrypsin inhibitor activity assays, and qRT-PCR. Collectively, our results demonstrate the creation of an allelic series of loss-of-function mutations affecting the major BBi gene in soybean. Mutations in two of the highly expressed seed-specific BBi genes lead to substantial reductions in both trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor activities.

Enzymatic and Algebraic Methodology to Determine the Contents of Kunitz and Bowman-Birk Inhibitors and Their Contributions to Total Trypsin or Chymotrypsin Inhibition in Soybeans.

Soybeans are the number one source of plant proteins for food and feed, but the natural presence of protein protease inhibitors (PIs), namely, the Kunitz trypsin inhibitor (KTI) and the Bowman-Birk inhibitor (BBI), exerts antinutritional effects. This communication describes a new methodology for simultaneously quantitating all parameters of PIs in soybeans. It consists of seven steps and featured enzymatically measuring trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitory activities, respectively, and subsequently determining the contents of reactive KTI and BBI and the contributions of each toward total PI mass and total trypsin or chymotrypsin inhibition by solving a proposed system of linear equations with two variables (C = dB + eK and T = xB + yK). This enzymatic and algebraic (EA) methodology was based on differential inhibitions of KTI and BBI toward trypsin and chymotrypsin and validated by applications to a series of mixtures of purified KTI and BBI, two KTI-null and two conventional soybeans, and by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The EA methodology allowed calculations of PI composition and the contributions of individual inhibitors toward total inhibition with ease. It was first found that although BBI constituted only about 30% of the total PI mass in conventional raw soybeans, it contributed about 80% toward total chymotrypsin inhibitor activity and about 45% toward trypsin inhibitor activity. Therefore, BBI caused more total protease inhibitions than those of KTI. Furthermore, the so-called KTI-null soybean mutants still contained measurable KTI content and thus should be named KTI-low soybeans.

246 The effect of trypsin inhibitor unit concentrations from raw soybeans in grower pig performance and protein digestibility

Abstract Soybeans contain two major protease inhibitors, Kunitz trypsin and Bowman-Birk protease inhibitors, both of which are anti-nutritional components that can be directly linked to a reduction in amino acid bioavailability and growth performance in swine. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the level at which trypsin inhibitor units (TIU, expressed as TIU/mg of complete feed), coming from raw soybeans, in pig diets result in reduction in growth performance and digestibility. This study used 45 grower gilts initial body weight (BW) = 39.7 ± 2.1 kg] that were individually penned and fed one of five dietary TIU treatments (n = 9 pigs/trt) in a complete randomized design. Diets were representative of a commercial corn-soybean meal diet and formulated to have ranging TIU/mg of complete feed of 0.89, 1.77, 3.55, 6.99, and 11.54 TIU/mg utilizing raw ground soybeans and soybean meal at incremental levels. Analyzed diets contained 0.99, 2.23, 3.07, 6.49, and 9.38 active TIU/mg. Diets were balanced to the same grams of SID Lys:ME of 2.85 and NDF concentration of 7.4% utilizing soybean oil and soybean hulls, respectively. Individual feed intake was recorded throughout, and pig BW were collected on d 0, 21, and 27 to calculate average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed efficiency gain to feed ratio (G:F). All pigs were placed into metabolism crates on d 21 for 6 d to determine apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of nitrogen (N), N excretion and N balance. Growth performance and ATTD data were analyzed with pig as the experimental unit and diet TIU level as a fixed effect using ANOVA, linear, and quadratic contrast models. Overall, ADG decreased as diet TIU increased (1.07, 1.03, 1.02, 0.91, and 0.83 kg/d, respectively, linear P < 0.001). However, no differences in ADFI (P > 0.10) were reported and this resulted in a decrease in G:F (0.48, 0.45, 0.43, 0.41, 0.36, respectively, linear P < 0.001) as dietary TIU concentrations increased from 0.99 to 9.38 TIU/mg. Compared with 0.99 TIU/mg, pigs fed 9.38 TIU/mg had a 9.32% reduction in final BW (68.7 vs. 62.3 kg, linear P < 0.001). Apparent total tract digestibility of N decreased when pigs were fed 9.38 TIU/mg compared with 0.99 and 2.23 TIU/mg (83.26% vs. 90.29% and 89.57%, respectively, P < 0.001). In conclusion, as total trypsin inhibitor units increase in complete feed of grower pigs, digestibility of protein, growth rates and feed efficiency are reduced in a linear manner.

137 Impact of dietary soybean-mediated trypsin inhibitor concentrations on nursery pig performance

Abstract Antinutritional factors associated with soybeans and soy products, such as trypsin inhibitor proteins, have been shown to hinder amino acid bioavailability and, consequently, affect the growth performance of pigs. Thus, our objective was to assess the impact of dietary trypsin inhibitor units (TIU; expressed as TIU/mg of feed) on nursery pig performance and health. Sixty barrows [5.56 ± 0.65 kg body weight (BW), Camborough (1050) x 337, (PIC, Hendersonville, TN)], freshly weaned and 19 to 21 d of age were randomly selected and allotted across six dietary treatments (10 pigs/treatment) in a randomized complete block design. All pigs were individually penned with ad libitum access to water and feed. Diets were administered in two phases directly post-weaning, spanning 14 and 28 d, respectively, and the entire test period extended for 42 d. Within each phase, diets were formulated to be isocaloric, with uniform NDF and SID lysine concentrations. In both phases, TIU were incrementally adjusted by the inclusion of soybean meal, raw ground soybeans, soybean oil, and soyhulls to attain a target TIU/mg feed of 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6. All diets were analyzed for active TIU/mg. Pig BW and feed disappearance were measured at the start and end of each phase to compute average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain to feed ratio (G:F). Fecal consistency was assessed daily in phase 1. Pig was the experimental unit and data were analyzed with the effect of diet, including the linear and quadratic contrasts, evaluating dietary TIU levels. The average analyzed TIU/mg over both diet phases were 0.38, 0.54, 1.85, 3.16, 3.90, and 5.79 TIU/mg diet, respectively. Fecal consistency scores did not differ across diets. At the end of phase 1, BW decreased from 8.7 to 6.9 kg as TIU/mg diet increased from 0.38 to 5.79 (linear P < 0.05). Similarly, by d 42, BW decreased from 25.3 to 15.5 kg with the increase in dietary TIU/mg from 0.38 to 5.79 (linear P < 0.0001). Both phase 1 and 2 showed a decrease in average daily gain (ADG) and G:F as TIU increased (linear P < 0.05). ADFI exhibited a decreasing trend in phase 1 (linear P = 0.079) and a decrease in phase 2 (linear P < 0.05) as dietary TIU increased. No quadratic responses were reported for ADG and G:F. Overall, as TIU increased, ADG, ADFI, and G:F were reduced, with 5.79 TIU/mg feed resulting in a decrease of these parameters by 8 to 22% (linear P < 0.01). In conclusion, increasing TIU levels in the diet had detrimental effects on nursery pig performance. The most significant negative impacts on growth, feed intake, and feed efficiency were observed in diets containing 3.16 to 5.79 TIU/mg feed.

Nutritional Values of Partially Replacing the Commercial Soybean Meal by Raw, Full-Fat Soybean in Diets of Layers

The aim of this study was to investigating the effects of partially replacing the commercial soybean meal (SBM) by locally produced raw, full-fat soybean (RFFSB) in diets of layers. After cleaning, the tested ingredient (RFFSB) was hammered to pass through a 0.2-mm sieve. Then, four experimental diets were formulated by replacing the SBM by RFFSB at 0, 15, 30 or 45% (equivalents to 0, 30, 60 or 90 g/kg of diet, respectively). Before the commencement of this feeding trial, birds were uniformly managed and fed as per their requirements (i.e., starter, grower and pullet diets). This feeding trial was started when birds’ age was 24 weeks. Every treatment was replicated 4 times and 17 laying birds per replicate. The results revealed that replacing the commercial SBM by raw soybean (up to 45%) in the layer diets had no negative effects on the final live BWT and also on the vital organ developments, such as pancreas, duodenum, intestines and gizzard. Hen-day egg production, hen-housed egg production and egg quality measuring parameters were not significant affected by that of partially replacing the commercially SBM by the raw soybean. It is concluded that without compromising the productivity and health, a hammered RFFSB can replace (up to 45%) the commercial SBM in diets of the laying hens.

Detailing the chemical composition of roasted soybeans and the effect for its use in the diet of dairy cows

Roasted soybeans are a complete source of indigestible protein in the rumen, have high sanitary and hygienic indicators, are devoid of non-nutritional substances of ordinary raw soybeans. The SoyPass and RaPass technology provides all the advantages of roasting soybeans and creates prerequisites for prolonged storage of beans for up to two years without prior drying. The introduction of full-fat flattened soybeans roasted by the Roast-A-Matic roaster into the diet of dairy cows leads to an increase in their milk productivity. Certified results of chemical research show that after frying, the percentage of crude protein significantly increased (by 2.92 points, P < 0.05) and the content of total digestible nutrients (by 8.1 %, P < 0.05), urease activity decreased to 0.06 ± 0.007 units of pH. The biological value of soy protein after frying corresponds to the indicators of the reference protein. Two groups of cows were involved in the study: № 1 – high-yielding cows with a daily milk yield of 30.69–35.96 L (n = 307) and № 2 – medium- and low-yielding cows with a yield of 19.05–28.88 L (n = 377). Group № 1 was given 300 g of roasted soybeans (111 g of protein) daily in their diet instead of 250 g of a high-protein supplement (200 g of protein); group No. 2 – gradually replaced 230 g of the supplement (184 g of protein) and 1500 g of 51 % meal (765 g of protein) with 1700 g of roasted soybeans (629 g of protein). In both groups, the 65-day observation period should be divided into 2 periods: 1) a 30-day period of intensive growth with a rapid increase in milk yield (up to +24.2–25.0 %); 2) the period of stabilization (from the 31st to the 65th day), characterized by some fluctuations in the % increase in milk, but in general by reliable maximum values (up to +25.0–36.7 %). The maximum daily volume in group № 1 reached 41.83 ± 1.04 and 41.83 ± 0.3 L (Р < 0.01) on the 32nd and 38th days, respectively. At the same time, the range of the indicators of the individual yield in the group ranged from 10.7 to 11.7 L. Similar indicators for group № 2 were: 32.56 ± 2.74 L (Р < 0.025) on the 58th day and 10.4–23.8 L. So, in the first 30 days of feeding full-fat fried soybeans, there is a rapid but unstable (with fluctuating peaks) increase in milk productivity of cows. During the 2nd month of soy consumption, the maximum milk yield is reached, when the increase in added milk is not rapid, but stable. Thus, it is advisable to introduce 1.5–2.0 kg/day of roasted soybeans (equivalent to 0.3–0.4 kg of fat/day) into the diet of dairy cows.

Prediction of Cooking Oil Production Amount Using the Fuzzy Time Series Ruey Chyn Tsaur Method

Cooking oil is used as a medium for frying foodstuffs that are widely consumed by the general public. Cooking oil can be produced from various raw materials, for example, coconut, copra, palm oil, soybeans, corn seeds, sunflower seeds, olive seeds, and others. This research aims to determine the predicted results of the amount of cooking oil production at PT. Pulau Sambu Kuala Enok and find out the results of forecasting the amount of cooking oil production at PT. Pulau Sambu Kuala Enok in 2023. The method used in this research is Ruey Chyn Tsaur's Fuzzy Time Series. Based on the results of data processing, forecasting results were obtained for January to December 2022 and this forecast has a MAPE value of 17.25%. The research results show that the Fuzzy Time Series Ruey Chyn Tsaur method has a good level of accuracy for predicting the amount of cooking oil production.

Physico-chemical Characteristics and the Effects of Processing Methods on the Nutritional and Anti-nutritional Quality of Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill)

The present investigation was carried out to determine the physico-chemical characteristics and effects of processing methods on the nutritional and anti-nutritional quality of soybeans. Soybean seeds were analysed using physico-chemical approaches, in order to obtain a detailed profile on these qualities. The effects of processing methods on the nutritional and anti-nutritional quality of soybean had an impact on the nutritional and anti-nutritional values. Soybeans were subjected to different processing methods which were sorted, washed, dried, and milled into flour (Sample A- Control), soaked in water (1:3) for 12h, mechanically dried at 60 ± 2 oC for 10 h and milled into flour (Sample B), soaked in water (1:3) for 12h, sprouted 72 h, mechanically-dried at 60 ± 2 oC for 10 h, roasted for 3 min and milled into flour (Sample C), boiled for 30 min in an open lid, mechanically-dried at 60 ± 2 oC for 10 h, roasted for 3 min and milled into flour (Sample D). The study revealed that raw soybean seeds had 90.43 ±3.93 g seed weight, 6.31 ± 0.41 mm length, 5.50 ± 0.29 mm breadth,4.58 ± 0.35 mm height, 0.88 ± 0.04 mm sphericity, 753.01 ± 6.62 kg/ m3 bulk density, 1181.03 ± 11.72 kg/ m3 true density, 36.33 ± 0.79 % porosity, 0.13 ± 0.005 g/seed hydration capacity, 1.25 ± 0.07 hydration index, 0.12 ± 0.01 mL swelling capacity, 1.62 ± 0.05 swelling index. The colour was recorded to be (L* 59.52, a* 8.97, b* 34.01), Chroma (c*) 35.17, and hue angle (ho) 9.84. After processing, moisture content increased (10.61 - 12.43 %), crude protein (42.97– 47.87 %), crude fibre (9.44 - 11.57 %), ascorbic acid (5.38 - 11.65 mg/ 100 g), and ash content (4.84-5.99 %) while total carbohydrates and total energy decreased significantly (17.70 - 15.92 %) and (439.69 - 397.82 %), respectively. Similarly, the phytic acid content decreased from 8.12 to 5.19 mg/100 g while the tannin decreased from 25.34 to 18.57 % and the protease inhibitor decreased from 7.12 to 5.01 %. The overall results of the current study revealed that the processing methods of soybeans had an impact on the nutritional and anti-nutritional values. Further, the study showed that processing methods can significantly improve the nutritional qualities of soybeans while substantially reducing their anti-nutritional properties, thereby boosting the nutrients' bioavailability.

Quality of purula (rice seasoning for anemia from soy protein hydrolysate and seaweed) during pilot plant scale development using drum drying process

Purula is a new rice seasoning product made from soy protein hydrolysate and seaweed. It contains low molecular weight (<20 kDa) biopeptide from soybean that can enhance iron absorption and fortified with vitamin and mineral to prevent anemia. This research aimed to monitor the quality of purula and its main ingredient during pilot plant scale process. The two main ingredients of purula are soy protein hydrolysate flour and seaweed slurry. Steam flash explosion and enzymatic hydrolysis treatment were applied to the soybean, followed by drum drying to produce soy protein hydrolysate flour. Brown and green algae were blanched and grinded to make seaweed slurry. Then, they were mixed with flour mix, drum dried, and added with vitamin and mineral to produce purula. Proximate, microbiological, and heavy chemical analysis were conducted on samples taken during stages of purula processing. Moisture content and thickness of Purula flakes were examined during pilot plant process. Molecular weight of protein analysis was also conducted on raw soybean, soy protein hydrolysate, and purula. Microbiological and chemical quality of soy protein hydrolysate flour, seaweed slurry, and purula conform with the food safety requirement. This indicates that Purula is safe for human consumption. Purula flakes produced by drum drying process also share consistent results of moisture content and thickness of Purula flake within 5 days of production. Low molecular weight of protein (<20 kDa) was produced on soy protein hydrolysate and still intact on purula finished product. This study concluded that purula is able to be properly produced on pilot plant scale.

Cleavage of macromolecule (protein/polysaccharide)-phenolic bond in soybean cell wall through Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus helviticus mixed culture solid-state fermentation for chlorogenic acid extraction

Out of the available dietary sources use for chlorogenic acid extraction, soybean is new and cheap that could offer cost-effective chlorogenic acid production under solid-state fermentation (SSF). Consequently, the study aimed at investigating the cleavage of protein/carbohydrate-phenolic bond in heilong48 soybean (HS) variety via solid-state fermentation by Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus helviticus mixed culture for chlorogenic acid extraction with high yield and increased biological activity. A simplistic two-pot bioproduct optimization approach was used; first, screening (Plackett-Burman design) of SSF conditions and second, optimizing (Box-Behnken design) the significant SSF conditions obtained from the former design. The liquid-solid (liquid:solid) ratio of 32:68 (0.47), incubation time of 48 h, pH of 5, and temperature of 50 °C were the best-optimized SSF conditions obtained from the chronological combinatory screening and optimization methods. These conditions gave a satisfactory SSF model, and correspondingly acceptable chlorogenic acid yield (9.20 ± 0.17 mg/g), fermentation efficiency (37.26 ± 0.73%), and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical-scavenging activity (DPPH) (65.21 ± 2.05 μmol AA eq/g dry sample) results. The L. casei and L. helviticus mixed culture fermented heilong48 soybean (MCFHS) sample (under optimized SSF conditions) had high (p < 0.05) chlorogenic acid yield and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical-scavenging activity than the raw heilong48 soybean flour (RHSF) sample. The effectiveness of the optimized solid-state fermentation conditions on the structural modifications of heilong48 soybean sample was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared results.

Effect of Soybean Protein Concentrate Preparation on Copy Numbers and Structural Characteristics of DNA from Genetically Modified Soybean.

To regulate the degradation of transgenic DNA and lay theoretical foundations for the rational utilization of genetically modified (GM) products, variations in copy numbers and structural characteristics of DNA from GM soybean event GTS 40-3-2 during soybean protein concentrate (SPC) preparation were evaluated. Results showed that defatting and the first ethanol extraction were key procedures inducing DNA degradation. After these two procedures, copy numbers of the lectin and cp4 epsps targets decreased by more than 4 × 108, occupying 36.88-49.30% of the total copy numbers from raw soybean. Atomic force microscopy images visually revealed the degradation of DNA that thinned and shortened during SPC preparation. Circular dichroism spectra suggested a lower helicity of DNA from defatted soybean kernel flour and a conformation transition of DNA from B-type to A-type after ethanol extraction. The fluorescence intensity of DNA decreased during SPC preparation, verifying the DNA damage along this preparation chain.

The impact of soybean products and probiotics on calcium bioaccessibility from organic and inorganic calcium salts in an in vitro digestion model

Probiotics and isoflavones have a promising therapeutic effect on calcium status and bone health, but there are only limited studies focusing on these products. The present study aimed to 1) determine the potential bioaccessibility of calcium from soybean products (raw soybean and tempeh) and a probiotic strain (Lactobacillus acidophilus) and to 2) evaluate whether the studied products and strain have an impact on the potential bioaccessibility of calcium from inorganic and organic calcium salts. The bioaccessibility of calcium was determined based on enzymatic in vitro digestion, and calcium content by flame atomic absorption spectrometry. The average potential calcium bioaccessibility from tempeh was 10% and from raw soybean was 2%, while probiotics could release over 85% of potential bioaccessible calcium during enzymatic digestion. In conclusion, the potential bioaccessibility of calcium from tempeh and soybeans is low. Soybean products decrease the bioaccessibility of calcium from organic and inorganic calcium salts, while probiotics could improve the bioavailability of calcium from these salts.

Association between chitosan and unsaturated fatty acids supplementation on ruminal fermentation, digestive metabolism, and ruminal kinetics in beef heifers

This study evaluated the effects of supplementation of chitosan and unsaturated fatty acid (UFAs) sources on intake, digestibility, ruminal and nitrogen metabolism, blood metabolites, and feeding behavior of beef heifers. Five crossbred Simental x Zebu heifers (335 ± 53.2 kg of initial BW), ruminally cannulated, were randomly assigned according to a 5 × 5 Latin square design containing the following treatments: 1) CON, the control diet without supplementation; 2) SO, control diet supplemented with 25.3 g/kg of soybean oil; 3) WRS, control diet supplemented with 160 g/kg of whole raw soybean (WRS); 4) SOCHI, SO diet plus 14 g/kg of CHI; 5) WRSCHI, WRS diet plus 14 g/kg of CHI. No interaction effects between CHI and WRS were observed on nutrient intakes and digestibilities. Heifers fed SO, or WRS diets with or without CHI had lower enteric methane (CH4) emissions (P < 0.01) than those fed CON. Moreover, animals fed SO and WRS had higher CH4 emissions than those fed SOCHI and WRSCHI. No interaction between CHI and WRS was observed on nitrogen balance. However, heifers fed SO or WRS diets with or without CHI had lower nitrogen (N) intake (P = 0.001) and fecal N (P = 0.015) than those fed CON. Besides, animals fed SO and WRS diets showed lower retained N (P = 0.010) and efficiency (P = 0.005) than those fed SOCHI and WRSCHI. Heifers fed SO, or WRS diets with or without CHI showed lower rumination efficiencies of dry matter (DM; P < 0.01) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF; P = 0.013) than those fed CON. Heifers fed SO or WRS with or without CHI, showed lower reticular flows of DM (P = 0.049), NDF (P = 0.002), and potentially digestible NDF (P = 0.002) than those fed CON. In addition, animals fed SO or WRS diets with or without CHI showed a lower rumen digestion rate of DM, turnover rates of DM and NDF, and passage rates of DM and pdNDF than those fed CON. The supply of CHI to beef heifers fed diets with SO and WRS alters ruminal fermentation, methane production, nitrogen balance, feeding behavior, and ruminal dynamics. Nevertheless, the results strengthen the evidence that the provision of CHI in beef cattle diets can positively influence the effect of fatty acid sources. Besides, fatty acids sources provided alone have a negative influence on most metabolism parameters in beef heifers.

Control of Beany Flavor from Soybean Protein Raw Material in Plant-Based Meat Analog Processing

The development of plant-based meat analogs is currently hindered by the beany flavor generated by raw soybean protein and extrusion processing. Wide concern has led to extensive research on the generation and control of this unwanted flavor, as an understanding of its formation in raw protein and extrusion processing and methods through which to control its retention and release are of great significance for obtaining ideal flavor and maximizing food quality. This study examines the formation of beany flavor during extrusion processing as well as the influence of interaction between soybean protein and beany flavor compounds on the retention and release of the undesirable flavor. This paper discusses ways to maximize control over the formation of beany flavor during the drying and storage of raw materials and methods to reduce beany flavor in products by adjusting extrusion parameters. The degree of interaction between soybean protein and beany compounds was found to be dependent on conditions such as heat treatment and ultrasonic treatment. Finally, future research directions are proposed and prospected. This paper thus provides a reference for the control of beany flavor during the processing, storage, and extrusion of soybean raw materials used in the fast-growing plant-based meat analog industry.

Soybean Trypsin Inhibitor(s) Reduce Absorption of Exogenous and Increase Loss of Endogenous Protein in Miniature Pigs

It was the purpose of this study to define whether trypsin inhibitors impair protein digestibility via enhanced loss of exogenous or endogenous protein by quantifying those losses using the homoarginine technique, recently developed in this laboratory. Pigs fitted with permanent ileal T-cannulas were fed test meals containing homoarginine-labeled protein. The meals contained casein and increasing doses of trypsin inhibitors (Experiment 1) or alternatively either heat-treated or raw ground soybeans (Experiment 2). Following a casein meal (425 mmol nitrogen, no trypsin inhibitors), ileal protein was predominantly of endogenous rather than of exogenous origin (105 vs. 9 mmol nitrogen). Addition of isolated trypsin inhibitors (3000 mg) enhanced appearance of both endogenous and exogenous protein at the ileum (by 73 and 9 mmol nitrogen, respectively). Feeding raw instead of heat-treated soybeans in one single test meal caused a significant increase of endogenous protein from 217 +/- 42 to 263 +/- 47 mmol (mean +/- SEM) and of exogenous protein from 16 +/- 3 to 48 +/- 14 mmol. If fed continuously for 1 wk, a raw soybean diet caused endogenous protein loss to rise significantly from 221 +/- 26 to 432 +/- 85 mmol. We conclude that ingestion of food containing trypsin inhibitor affects nitrogen balance more by losses of amino acids of endogenous secreta than by losses of dietary amino acids.