Export Of Raw Materials Research Articles

GEOGRAPHICAL STRUCTURE OF FOREIGN TRADE OF MONGOLIA: INTRACONTINENTALITY, BORDERCROSSES AND FEATURES OF LOGISTICS

Foreign trade is one of the phenomena most susceptible to the so-called spatial friction effect. This article provides an overview of the geographical structure of Mongolia’s exports and imports by remoteness zones, demonstrating the critical influence of its landlocked position. Examining the distribution of imports and exports, considering the degree of product processing, reveals that finished products have a more dispersed distribution across remoteness zones. In contrast, raw materials are primarily directed to the nearest zone. The article presents statistics on product transportability, understood as the price per unit weight, and its distribution by remoteness zones at border crossing points. It concludes that the most valuable cargo passes through border points with Russia, while raw materials with low transportability, primarily coal and copper, are transported through the Mongolian-Chinese points of Gashuunsukhait and Zamyn-Uud, mainly to the nearest zone. Field studies have revealed the specifics of logistics schemes for coal delivery to China from the Tavan Tolgoi deposit. These involve delivery by road trains or by rail in containers, which simplifies the transshipment process and mitigates the barrier factor of the difference in railway gauge between Mongolia and China. In the copper mining industry, Russia and Mongolia are entering into competition through the parallel development of their largest copper-gold reserves. To diversify Mongolia’s foreign trade and reduce its economic dependence on China, it is necessary to increase the processing of raw material exports into finished products, which can be achieved with the help of Russian high-tech companies.

‘Autonomy for Our Economy’: A Review of the Responsible Government Status and Economic Interest Groups in Southern Rhodesia, 1922 to the Second World War

ABSTRACT This article revisits the impact and legacy of the 1922 referendum and the subsequent granting of responsible government status to Southern Rhodesia in shaping the future economic trajectory of the self-governing colony. Governed through the chartered British South Africa Company (BSAC) from 1890, Southern Rhodesia developed as a typical colony dependent on the export of raw materials, the import of manufactured goods, external capital for economic development, and imperial control. The attainment of responsible government status three decades later gave Southern Rhodesia a unique opportunity to determine its economic affairs with minimum interference from the metropole. That autonomy was made possible by consolidated settler politics that manifested through organised civic organisations that coalesced around particular economic interests, leading to the emergence of interest groups of miners, farmers, commerce, and industrialists. These groups interacted, competed, and collaborated as they pursued their interests, and thus shaped the economic trajectory of Southern Rhodesia. This article demonstrates that unique self-governing colony status allowed Southern Rhodesia to flourish more than other colonies. It thus argues that the 1922 referendum that birthed responsible government laid the base for the diversification of the Rhodesian economy.

Police Oversight of Legality in Railway Freight Transport in Russian Empire During World War I

This article analyzes the activities of the gendarmerie railway police in ensuring compliance by freight carriers with prohibitions and restrictions on the export of certain raw materials and goods during World War I. Based on documentary materials, it reveals the content of the state policy of the Russian Empire regarding measures to halt the supply of essential resources to the Central Powers’ armies. The study of the administrative documentation of the railway police indicates that particular attention was paid to monitoring freight transport at border stations. The issue of police support for the stable functioning of railways under wartime conditions is explored. Gendarmerie officers facilitated the prioritization of military cargo movement along steel corridors. A critical responsibility of the gendarmerie was uncovering collusion among railway employees and shippers to manipulate train speeds for illicit speculative profit amid commodity shortages. The study concludes that the gendarmerie railway police played a significant role in overseeing the legality of freight transport during World War I. However, amid the disorganization of state mechanisms and deepening crises in Russian society, ensuring uninterrupted and effective railway operations proved impossible.

Export of agricultural products as a determinant of currency security of Ukrainian economy

Purpose. The purpose of this study is the development of the methodological approach for estimation the impact of agri-food exports on the monetary sphere of Ukraine in order to substantiate the prospective directions of the export potential of agricultural products as the factor in ensuring the currency security of Ukraine. Methodology / approach. The following methods were used: literature review in determining the main trends in the export of agricultural products based on the analysis of publications; economic and statistical analysis to assess the impact of key factors on the formation of the export potential of agricultural products and its impact on exchange rate formation; ARDL modelling, Dickey-Fuller, and Engle-Granger tests to estimate the impact of different factors on exchange rate changes. Results. The paper highlights the immediate and delayed influence of selected factors on the dynamics of the exchange rate in Ukraine, showing that the export of food products and raw materials for their production can significantly strengthen the national currency in the long-run. The continuous growth in food exports contributes to a slower appreciation of the exchange rate, which ultimately leads to a stronger national currency. Therefore, the strategy of focusing on increasing food exports can play a vital role in bolstering the Ukrainian currency in the long-run by exerting a positive influence on the exchange rate dynamics and contributing to the overall economic stability. Originality / scientific novelty. The study contributes to the understanding of the complex interplay between war, food security, and economic stability. The novelty implies the ARDL model of the influence of agricultural exports on the currency and exchange rate sphere of the Ukrainian economy. Additionally, the analysis adds new dimension to the discussion on the strategic importance of the agricultural sector for foreign exchange reserves and currency accumulation. Practical value / implications. The practical value is that understanding the relationship between export volumes, global prices, and exchange rate movements can help in predicting and managing currency fluctuations more effectively. By identifying the time frames for the return of exchange rate shocks to their long-term equilibrium and the impact of various factors on currency valuation, the study aims policy-making processes at ensuring currency security for the state.

Peran World Trade Organization (WTO) dalam Menyelesaikan Sengketa Dagang Antara Uni Eropa dan Indonesia Terkait Kebijakan Pelarangan Ekspor Mineral Mentah Nikel

The background of this research is the WTO as an international trade organisation under the economic and social council is authorised to regulate international trade as well as resolve international trade disputes. As for nickel as a potential raw mineral material in terms of economic value and a source of world electricity, it then became an issue when Indonesia issued a policy to ban the export of nickel raw minerals. The purpose of this research is to find out the implications of Indonesia's nickel export ban on international trade, and to find out the WTO dispute settlement system in the nickel case between Indonesia and the European Union. This type of research uses descriptive analysis research that describes the results of the author's analysis. The result of this research is that there are 2 (two) types of implications of Indonesia's defeat of the European Union's lawsuit related to the ban on exports of nickel raw materials, namely legal implications which can be in the form of imposing an obligation to pay losses to the plaintiff and non-legal implications, namely disrupting the downstream of nickel mining in Indonesia.

Features and Major Issues of Indian Economy

Theodore Roosevelt remarked, “A peep in the past prepares you better for the future”. Thus, for understanding the present state of the Indian economy and its future prospects a brief comment on its past will be appropriate. The Indian economy, before the British came around the middle of the nineteenth century, was quite sound. According to an estimate, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India in the sixteenth century was about 25% of the world economy, the second largest in the world. However, after the arrival of the colonial rule the Indian economy faced disaster; from being an exporter of processed goods it changed to being an exporter of raw materials and a buyer of manufactured goods. As per British economist, Angus Maddison, India’s share of the world income went from 27% in 1700 A.D. (compared to Europe share of 23%) to 3% in 1950. After India got independence in 1947, the process of rebuilding the economy started. However, it was mostly centralized and the period from 1947 to 1991 was termed as the licence raj, because the successive governments followed protectionist economic policies. This trend led to a balance of payments crisis in the year 1990. The year 1991 turned out to be watershed in the Indian economy when the government of India in June 1991 announced major liberalization policies in Indian economy. The emergence of India as a major economic power in the world happens to be one such idea. Since then, Indian economy has progressed immensely with GDP progressing at the rate of 6 to 8% per annum and is expected to be one of the top three economic powers in the world over the next 10-15 years. India is also backed by its robust democracy and strong partnerships. India has finally arrived in the category of fast emerging economies. It is fast entering the league of high growth nations. The future seems to have much more in store. But a lot depends on how the grey areas are tackled. We have finally been able to unshackle ourselves from the stigma of being a low growth economy and have infused dynamism into our economic system. Not only is India achieving higher growth rates year after year, the rate at which it is moving towards higher growth targets is also higher. In this research paper discuss the features of Indian economy and major issues of Indian economy.

The Impact of Indonesian Crude Oil Demand Prices on the Indonesian Biodiesel Industry

Biodiesel is one of Indonesia's potential export commodities as there is a production surplus that occurs every year from 2006 to 2020. The study used the 2SLS method with a validation and simultaneous equation model. Data processing using SAS/ETS version 9.4. The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact of Indonesia's crude oil demand price on Indonesia's biodiesel industry. The findings indicate that the demand for Indonesian biodiesel is positively impacted by a rise in the global real price of crude oil by 0.11%. This increase is due to both the biodiesel industry's and the local market's need for Indonesian palm oil. The local price of Indonesian biodiesel would rise by 0.49% due to the increase in demand for the fuel. The amount of biodiesel produced in Indonesia will increase by 0.87%, this increase in production is due to increasing domestic demand for Indonesian palm oil, and the volume of biodiesel exported to destination countries will increase by 0.01%. Exports of palm oil may be more impacted by the policy of raising the actual world price of crude oil. This implies that the program may potentially result in a rise in raw material exports. On the other hand, the biodiesel industry and other industries also see a spike in palm oil as a result of the strategy of raising the real world price of crude oil.

Feasibility of Establishing and Re-operation of Industrial Projects in Iraq Through import-substitution strategy

The research idea originated from the significance of the industrial sector and its pivotal role in inducing structural and systemic changes at the national economic level. Given the numerous challenges the industrial sector faces in Iraq, many industrial projects have partially or entirely ceased operations. In contrast, state-owned industrial companies have become a burden on the government. Import substitution through manufacturing is considered one of the leading strategies and most vital industrial approaches that have historically catalyzed industrial growth and structural transformations in the economy. This has been evident in the development of countries that initially relied on primitive economic models centred around simple agriculture and the export of raw materials and transitioned into diversified economies with a significant industrial component, producing numerous high-quality and technologically advanced products. Based on this, the study aims to assess the compatibility of this strategy with the current Iraqi economic landscape. It seeks to shed light on inactive industrial projects and companies, exploring the feasibility of reactivating them or establishing new industrial ventures. Priority will be given to projects aligned with its objectives and goals. Additionally, the study aims to provide a forward-looking perspective on the state of the industry in Iraq's prospects, diagnose existing problems, and attempt to find solutions and remedies that can contribute to establishing a reliable industrial sector.

ECONOMIC AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF PROVIDING INNOVATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECONOMY IN THE CONDITIONS OF INCREASED INFLUENCE OF FACTORS OF A MILITARY NATURE: THE EXPERIENCE OF UKRAINE AND THE COUNTRIES OF CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE

The purpose of the article is to analyze the state of innovative development of the economy of Ukraine and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and to identify the problems of its provision in the conditions of martial law. The results of the study prove that factors of a military nature have an ambiguous effect on stimulating the innovative development of the country's economy. It has been established that economic evolution through innovation is a prerequisite for strengthening its competitiveness in countering modern challenges and threats. The results of the empirical study made it possible to find out that during the large-scale aggression of Russia on the territory of Ukraine in 2022, a decrease in the level of innovative economic development was also observed in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. It was established that in 2023, the countries of the analyzed group managed to increase the indicators of innovative activity of business entities and the parameters of the innovative development of the economy. Important problems in ensuring economic progress through innovative activity have been identified: (1) shortcomings of the legislation regulating the innovation sphere; (2) lack of formation of a unified innovation infrastructure; (3) significant tax burden; (4) lack of an effective system of taxation and provision of tax benefits and preferences; (5) lack of effective investment mechanisms in the field of innovation; (6) low level of technological capacity of production facilities; (7) imperfection of the education system; (8) low level of financing of research activities; (9) focus on the export of raw materials and dependence on high-tech imports. In order to ensure sustainable innovative development of the country's economy, it is necessary to create appropriate conditions for the development of innovative potential, activate the creation of cross-border innovation clusters, and strengthen the country's investment attractiveness.

The impact of agricultural value chains on sustainable industrial development in Sub-Saharan Africa

This research identifies the critical challenges surrounding agricultural value chains and their role in fostering sustainable industrial development in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) between 1990 and 2022, utilizing the Panel Least Squares (PLS) technique. The paper reports that agricultural value added (p < 0.01), farm machinery (p < 0.05), human capital (p < 0.01), and access to electricity (p < 0.01) exhibited a positive and significant influence on industrial sector output. Conversely, agricultural raw materials exports (p < 0.01) had a negative and significant impact on industrial sector output (p < 0.01). In conclusion, the study underscores the critical role of agricultural value chains in fueling sustainable industrial development in SSA and recommends that policymakers formulate plans to leverage agricultural value chains as catalysts for enduring economic growth and development.

A robust bi-level programming model to enhance resilience in supply chain network considering government role, taxing, and raw sale: An iron ore case study

The mining industry plays a substantial role in any economy because of its enormous influence on other sections of a country. Despite the significant challenges in this industry, such as government regulations, taxing policies, raw material sales, and disruptions, there are rare studies that have considered mining supply chain network design. Thus, this paper proposes a mixed-integer linear bi-level programming model under operational and disruption risks to design a robust and resilient mining supply chain network. The government is considered as the leader that aims to decrease the sales of raw materials, boost the export of final products, and maximize its profit. Moreover, the closed-loop mining supply chain is introduced as the follower level that maximizes the total profit. In other words, this study presents a bi-level model that balances the export of raw materials and final products, for the first time. Additionally, a data envelopment analysis approach is applied to rank the candidate mine areas and reduce the model’s complexity. Finally, a real-world case study of the Iranian iron ore supply chain is applied to demonstrate the efficiency and applicability of the addressed model. The results indicate that the effect of raw material price on the upper level is 22% higher than the lower level under the same conditions. Moreover, the exchange rate has a great impact on the objective functions of both levels. Furthermore, Yazd province has great potential to be introduced as a steel pole in Iran.

In dustrial development status and strategy of improving quality and efficiency of ginger, a resource for both medicine and food use

China cultivates characteristic resource plant Zingiber officinale for both medicine and food use, with a long history of cultivation, production, and application. With the continuous excavation of the health and skin care values of ginger products due to scientific and technological progress, the scale expansion and quality improvement of the ginger industry have been effectively promoted, forming an industrial cluster with rich germplasm resources and diverse product categories represented by the north and south regions of China, and China has been developed as the biggest producer and exporter of raw materials and processed products of ginger.The present situation of ginger germplasm resources, ginger production, market price, and quality control of ginger products was reviewed in this paper. According to data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO), United Nations International Trade Database, Chinese Network for Ginger Trade, and China Industry Information Network, the market fluctuation and trend of ginger products in China and abroad were discussed, and the current development and utilization of Chinese and international ginger industries were analyzed. In addition, through the research group's field investigation of the main producing area of ginger in China, analysis and prediction were made, and measures to improve the quality and efficiency of ginger industry use were put forward,so as to offer experience for relevant departments to study and formulate the development plan and production layout of ginger industry,help practitioners in ginger industry to cope with challenges, and provide a reference for promoting the quality and efficiency of ginger industry and high-quality development.

Diversification of export activities: essence, purpose and state in Ukraine

Introduction. Export diversification is an essential tool for accelerating economic growth in developing countries. After all, these countries' exports are concentrated on raw materials and agricultural products, which are primarily sensitive to external shocks. By diversifying their exports, countries can reduce their vulnerability to fluctuations in foreign markets, including changes in demand, prices and terms of trade. This will stabilise the country's export earnings, ensure uninterrupted financing of imports and the development of various sectors of the national economy. In addition, diversifying export activities contributes to the structural transformation of the national economy and the country's innovative development. The purpose of the paper is to reveal the essence and functional purpose of export diversification in ensuring the country's economic development. The objective will be achieved by analysing the state of diversification of Ukraine's exports of goods and studying its relationship with the country's economic development. Results. Based on the analysis of changes in Ukraine's export commodity structure, the paper shows that in 2014-2023, there was a deepening of specialisation in Ukraine's exports of raw materials, food and agricultural products. At the same time, the share of medium and highly processed goods in Ukraine's export structure has decreased significantly. These trends are confirmed by the relatively high degree of specialisation of Ukrainian exports of goods over the period considered, as calculated by the normalised Herfindahl-Hirschman index. It is noted that the deepening concentration of Ukrainian exports of raw materials, food and agricultural products has been accompanied by slow growth or decline in GDP per capita. This confirms the hypothesis that there is a correlation between the diversification of export activities and a country's economic development level. Conclusions. According to the study's results, one strategy for Ukraine's economic growth under current conditions should be to diversify export activities and develop trade in goods with a medium and high degree of processing.

ATTEMPTS TO OVERCOME THE USSR'S LAG IN THE FIELD OF PETROCHEMISTRY IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 1960S

The purpose of the publication is to investigate the problem of the evolution of the state industrial policy in the field of petrochemical development in the second half of the 1960s on the basis of declassified archival documents. It is proved that the country's leadership had all the data indicating both the significant role of petrochemistry in the economy of developed countries, the active growth of production volumes, and the significant lag of the Soviet Union in a number of areas. The data provided by Soviet diplomats and experts in this field accelerated the consideration of these issues in the Central Committee of the CPSU. The conclusion is formulated that measures were taken to overcome the backlog, but they proved insufficient and did not bring the expected results. Among the blocking factors are: the predominance of the interests of individual departments; planning miscalculations; lack of financing; low prices for oil and petroleum products, constraining the development and implementation of energy-saving technologies, economical power plants; wasteful consumption of raw materials, products of its processing; forcing the export of raw materials, including to the COMECON countries. It was often political motives that prevailed in this case, but not economic expediency.

Indonesian Government Policy in Increasing State Revenue Through Raw Material Export Prohibitions

Purpose: To increase state income and revenues by prohibiting the export of raw materials, especially mining and mineral materials, by converting raw materials into semi-finished or finished materials so that added value can be added. Method: This study uses normative legal research which examines the policies of the Indonesian government as outlined in Law No. 4 of 2009 concerning Minerals and Coal, which prohibits raw mining and mineral materials from being exported abroad. The research approach is through a qualitative juridical approach, namely by examining it from a legal standpoint as well as providing explanations related to the ban on the export of minerals and minerals. Results and Conclusions: The policy of prohibiting the export of raw mining and mineral materials generates greater state income and revenue, because it gets a large added value by imposing high taxes, and also opens up employment opportunities and reduces unemployment in Indonesia. Research implications: The Indonesian government's policy of prohibiting the export of mineral and mineral raw materials raises pros and cons in the country, but the Indonesian government remains adamant that this policy is to increase state revenues and revenues, added value and employment. Overseas, the government's policy of banning the export of mineral and mineral raw materials is opposed by the United States and the European Union because it will harm them as importers of mineral and raw materials from Indonesia Originality/value: Importing countries of mining and mineral raw materials such as China, the United States and Europe have established mining and mineral raw material (Smelteer) processing companies in Indonesia.

Regulation of Strategic Investment Downloading in The Growth of Indonesia's Leading Sectors

Indonesia has great economic potential with abundant natural resources. However, so far Indonesia is still trapped in the global value chain as an exporter of raw materials. This causes the added value obtained by Indonesia to be low and the Indonesian economy does not grow optimally. The Indonesian government has realized this problem and has issued various policies to encourage downstream investment. This research aims to analyze the downstream regulations for strategic investment in the growth of Indonesia's leading sectors. This research uses normative legal research methods. Research data was obtained from a study of documents and laws and regulations related to downstream investment. The data analysis technique used is qualitative analysis. The data obtained were analyzed using descriptive and interpretive methods. The research results show that the Indonesian government is using an acceleration strategy to increase investment to increase the rate of downstream investment in leading sectors for national economic growth. Regulations for the downstreaming of strategic investments in the growth of leading sectors are regulated in several policies including Law Number 3 of 2020 concerning Amendments to Law Number 4 of 2009 concerning Mineral and Coal Mining, mandating that no longer export raw materials, Law Number 3 In 2014 regarding Industry, OJK issued a policy in the banking industry to support the acceleration program for Battery-Based Electric Motor Vehicles (KBL BB) as well as the development of its upstream industry.

Preface

Providing the national and world economy with mineral raw materials is an integral part of development and scientific and technological progress. The modern world is moving to new forms of interaction, concentrating its trends on digitalization, computerization and automation of all processes of human life. However, these trends require the use of strategically important minerals (coal, natural gas, ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, rare earth metals, construction raw materials, etc.), as well as critical raw materials, the list of which is supplemented every year in accordance with the trends of scientific and technological progress and the development of the state’s economy.About half of the industrial potential of Ukraine and up to 20% of its labor resources are related to the mining and use of minerals. Due to the export of mineral raw materials and products of their processing, Ukraine receives about 60% of the total amount of export revenues. At the same time, the subsoil of Ukraine still has a significant potential for building up the mineral and raw material base.The issue of mining and processing of minerals during the war requires special attention in Ukraine. The conference “Challenges of ensuring Ukraine’s mineral resources in the context of post-war reconstruction - 2023” is designed to contribute to solving the urgent issues of reconstruction and modernization of Ukraine after the end of the war and the country’s integration into the European Union.List of the committee members who organized the conference is available in the pdf.

Strengthening the role of local agri-food systems in overcoming the consequences of using food as a weapon in Ukraine

One of the vulnerabilities of Ukraine, which was highlighted by the use of food as a weapon in the Russian war against it, was its excessive raw material export orientation and weak internal rooting of the agri-food system, as well as the insufficient resilience of its local links. The purpose of this study was to substantiate the potential for strengthening local agri-food systems through the fuller involvement of small-scale agricultural producers with a focus on meeting the food needs of all segments of the population. The study employed the following methods: system analysis, grouping and classification, statistical analysis, formalisation, abstract and logical. The study covered the manifestations of Russia’s use of food to achieve political and military goals in Ukraine, as well as the role of small agricultural producers in mitigating their adverse consequences. It was found that the key to strengthening the sustainability of the agri-food system at both the local and national levels is to provide farm enterprises and household farms with diversified access to domestic markets by stimulating demand for their agricultural products. The study substantiated the forms of implementation of this task through the introduction of programmes of linked food subsidies for vulnerable groups of the population, public procurement from small producers for school meals, and promotion of solidarity food security at the community level. The study assessed the need for resources for these programmes and the potential of small farms to produce the necessary products, showing that the introduction of these programmes will facilitate the transition of agriculture to agroecology. The study also covered the possibility of financing measures to overcome the consequences of the use of food as a weapon while supporting small producers through the use of the National Bank’s targeted issue with partial involvement of budgetary funds within the framework of strengthening the national rootedness of the agri-food system, as well as donor support.The practical significance of the findings of this study lies in the possibility of their use in the implementation of food support measures for vulnerable groups and the preparation of a lawsuit to the International Criminal Court regarding the weaponisation of food by the Russian Federation in the war against Ukraine.

FOOD AVAILABILITY AND STATE SUPPORT FOR FOOD SECURITY DURING WAR

FOOD AVAILABILITY AND STATE SUPPORT FOR FOOD SECURITY DURING WAR

Exploring The Impact of Green Accounting and Corporate Social Responsibility Disclosure on Firm Value Through Profitability In Mining Companies In Indonesia

This study is dedicated to examining how the implementation of green accounting and the disclosure of corporate social responsibility impact the value of mining companies in Indonesia through profitability. Green accounting is a relatively novel area of research in Indonesia, particularly in the context of the mining sector. Given the ongoing governmental reforms in the mining industry, with the prohibition of raw material exports under Law Number 3 of 2020 amending Law Number 4 of 2009 on Mineral and Coal Mining, the study finds it intriguing to explore the implications of green accounting. The ban on nickel ore exports, as stipulated by the aforementioned legal amendments, sparked strong opposition from the European Union, leading to Indonesia being taken to the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in early 2021. This policy aligns with the broader objective of downstreaming, which seeks to secure a domestic supply of raw materials for mineral processing and refining, thereby mitigating adverse environmental effects. To initiate the research, the first step involves gathering data on pertinent variables from the financial statements of mining companies listed on the Indonesian Stock Exchange (IDX). Subsequently, SPSS will be employed to conduct tests and assess the influence of green accounting and corporate social responsibility disclosure on firm value, with profitability acting as a mediating factor.