Raw Chickpea Research Articles

Potential for and impacts of mainstreaming diversification crops through institutional catering

IntroductionIn France, land use is dominated by a narrow range of crops. As crop diversification is increasingly promoted to transform the food system, outlets for diversification crops need to be identified. We assess the scope for introducing diversification crops from farmers’ fields to canteen plates, and the agroecological, environmental, work-related and nutritional impacts of their introduction.MethodsWe focus on three diversification crops: chickpea, squash, and millet, to partly replace soft wheat, potato, and durum wheat, respectively. For each crop, we define three scenarios of low (1), medium (2) and high (3) integration into institutional catering on a national scale. We assess the scenarios against the amount of diversification cropland area needed and their expected impacts.ResultsDiversification crops can be developed through institutional catering. Taking the case of chickpea, in Scenario 1, chickpea flour is introduced in a cake served once every 20 days, replacing 30% of the soft wheat flour used. This amounts to 874 ha cropped. In Scenario 2, chickpea flour partly replaces wheat flour in all preparations, and 4,048 ha are required. In Scenario 3, raw chickpeas are also introduced into new recipes and 20,958 ha are needed. All three diversification crops support the establishment of agroecological cropping systems, with enhanced nutrient cycling in particular, and reduce their environmental footprint, notably by avoiding pesticide use. Diversification crops do not generate work constraints for farmers and cooks. However, they have a lower productivity per unit area than the reference crops, although they do improve several nutrition parameters such as fiber intake.DiscussionWe show for the first time that institutional catering provides a tangible outlet for developing diversification crops and improving the sustainability of agriculture. Our scenarios can support concerted actions between farmers, supply-chain actors, cooks and policy makers, as well as communication to eaters surrounding their impacts on agriculture.

Influence of Soaking, Boiling, Roasting, and Germination on the Composition and Functional Properties of Algerian Chickpea Flour, and the Consumer Acceptability of Chickpea Cheese Analogue

Background: Chickpeas, rich in protein and fiber, are essential in a healthy diet, as the plant-based cheese industry responding to environmental demands. The objectives of current study were dual-folded: to scrutinize the impact of diverse treatments on the physicochemical and functional characteristics of chickpea flour, and to assess the suitability of this chickpea flour as a raw material for the formulation of a plant-based cheese analogue. Methods: Soaking at room temperature for 15 h, boiling for 20 min, roasting at 180 °C for 30 min, and germination for 24 h were utilized for a chickpea variety harvested from Constantine of Algeria in 2021. The effects of these treatments were investigated with regard to the chemical composition and functional features of chickpea flour. Additionally, The suitability of chickpea flour for the development of plant-based cheese analog was ascertained by analyzing its color properties, texture profile, and sensory evaluation. ANOVA (XLSTAT 2014) and Tukey’s pairwise comparison test at the 5% significance level (p<0.05) were applied to perform statistical analysis. Results: All used treatments resulted in significant enhancements (p<0.05) in crude fat content and Emulsifying Capacity, along with significant reductions in swelling and Foaming Capacity, which was notably high in raw chickpea flour with 142.06%. Moreover, roasting reduced significantly moister content and exerted a positive effect on Water Absorption Capacity. However, the remaining chemical composition parameters and functional characteristics failed to reveal significant changes following the applied treatments. In texture profile analysis, chickpea cheese analogs exhibited lower values of hardness and cohesiveness in comparison with the commercial cheese. The chickpea cheese analogues received lower scores compared to the commercial cheese based on the sensory evaluation. Conclusion: Each treatment manifested distinct impacts on the chemical composition and functional properties of raw chickpea flour. Chickpea cheese analogue failed to be well-received by consumers.

Composition, characterisation and emulsifying properties of natural nanoparticles in chickpea aquafaba for the formation of chilli oleoresin-in-water Pickering emulsions

This study aims to assess the compositional characteristics of British Kabuli chickpea aquafaba (AF) by conducting a comprehensive analysis from raw chickpeas to centrifugation fractions of AF and its potential use in forming and stabilising capsaicin-loaded O/W Pickering systems by exploiting the presence of self-assembled nanoparticles and proteins, which act as natural-coating agent. To this end, chickpeas were soaked (16 h, 4 °C, 1:4 chickpea: water) and pressure-cooked (20 min, 113 °C, 10 psig, 1:5 chickpea: water). The dry weight-based (DWB) compositions included total carbohydrate (76.33 ± 4.20%), protein (16.29 ± 0.43%), total phenolics (7.05–8.77 mg/g) and saponins (39.95 ± 0.89 mg/g), thus confirming the leaching of these components from seeds to AF. SDS-PAGE electrophoresis analysis revealed the presence of low MW proteins (≤∼16 kDa). The monosaccharides comprised d-glucose, d-galactose, l-arabinose, d-xylose and d-fructose. AF's particle size distribution revealed the occurrence of a bimodal population of nanoparticles (Dh ≤∼1000 nm and Dh ≤∼100 nm), further characterised by SAXS and TEM imaging. O/W emulsions were prepared with three chilli oleoresin types (capsicum, chilli birds' eye, and chilli ancho) by high-pressure homogenisation. The emulsion with the highest capsaicin content (capsicum oleoresin) was the most stable while the emulsion with the lowest capsaicin content (chilli ancho oleoresin) was the least stable. The presence of incidental nanoparticles and denatured proteins in AF was reasoned to account for the formation and stabilisation of chilli oleoresin-in-water Pickering emulsions, a newly offered explanation for its interfacial properties that will be pursued further in future studies.

The Application of Raw Chickpeas and Nuts in the Development of Plant-Based Cheese Snack: Ideal Nutrition and Texture Properties

Human and global health would be greatly improved by replacing animal-based foods with plant-based alternatives. This transition would be facilitated when more affordable, convenient, sustainable, nutritious, and tasty plant-based foods are available on the market. Interest in related research has surged these years, and dozens of plant-based cheese (PBC) products have been introduced to the market. However, studies found that most PBCs are far from comparable with dairy cheese in nutritional value, and the texture and sensory properties are still hurdles to the widespread consumption of PBCs. This paper focused on the “tissue disruption route” and adopted chickpeas and nuts as the main ingredients to form a cheese snack. Test results showed that our samples were high of nourishment value compared to the cheese sample and even healthier than the cheese in the terms of energy ( 709.37 ± 1.35 vs. 865.63 ± 0.49 kJ/100 g, p < 0.01 ), K/Na ratio ( 142.00 ± 0.82 / 13.33 ± 0.12 mg/100 g vs. 121.67 ± 2.05 / 44.23 ± 0.05 mg/100 g, p < 0.01 ), DF ( 6.99 ± 0.01 g/100 g vs. N/A, p < 0.01 ), and cholesterol ( 8.81 ± 0.25 vs. 207.30 ± 3.35 mg/100 g, p < 0.01 ). From the order of magnitude, the PBC samples are similar to the cheese sample in the aspects of cohesiveness ( p < 0.05 ) in texture test, and the fermentation process improved the imitation of texture properties in terms of hardness and cohesiveness (both p < 0.05 ). The volatile compounds were similar between the two PBC samples; however, the fermentation process could increase the species of the volatile compounds and make the PBC a little more similar to the dairy cheese. Overall, the observed properties of our PBC snack using raw chickpeas and nuts make the “plant-based cheese substitutes” extremely promising because of their nutritional value, sensory, and texture properties.

READY-TO-EAT CHICKPEA PURÉE POWDER BY DRUM DRYING; PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF POWDER PRODUCT

This study aims to convert raw chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) into dried chickpea puree powder form using a drum dryer having a high rehydration ratio and for ready-to-use consumption form maintaining its healthy properties. The effects of the drying conditions on the physical, chemical, and rheological properties of chickpea puree powders were investigated. Before drying, raw chickpeas were soaked in water at 25°C for 12 hours and boiled at 100°C for 55 minutes. In the drying process, saturated steam pressures (2, 3, and 4 bar) and drum rotation speeds (2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0 rpm) were chosen as process variables. The most appropriate process conditions were determined as 3 bar of steam pressure and 2 rpm of drum rotation speed targeting the maximum protein content (30.35±0.18%), maximum rehydration ratio (515±0.01%), and as low as possible browning index (BI)(59.28±4.90) values. It was determined that chickpea puree had the appropriate rheological characteristics when the shear stress and shear rate values for chickpea puree powders with various dry matter contents (%25, %26, %27.5, %30) produced under suitable process parameters were examined.

Oxidative Effects of Raw Chickpea in Reformulated Pork Patties: Level of Chickpea, Temperature, and Use of Selected Natural Antioxidants

Raw pulses as extenders in meat preparations result in oxidative processes. The oxidative effects of using a raw chickpea paste (CP; 1/2; chickpea/water) in pork patties were evaluated. In a first experiment, patties were prepared with increasing levels of CP (0 to 25%); in a second experiment, patties with CP (25%) and without CP (controls) were kept at 4 °C or 22 °C for 18 h before patty production; in a third experiment, chitosan, garlic, and cumin (from 0.5 to 2%) were added in patties with CP (25%) and controls, and their antioxidant effects were evaluated. Patties were analysed for pH, colour, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) on days 1, 3, and 7 of refrigerated aerobic storage. Discoloration on day 1 and TBARS levels on days 1 to 7 of storage increased with the CP used. Higher batter temperature after mixing did not activate oxidative processes in the CP patties. Garlic showed pro-oxidant effects in controls and no effects in the CP patties. Chitosan and cumin did not reduce CP patties oxidation on the first day of storage, but they controlled oxidation during subsequent storage. More research is needed to prevent oxidation caused by using raw chickpeas in meat preparations.

Effects of the use of raw or cooked chickpeas and the sausage cooking time on the quality of a lamb-meat, olive-oil emulsion-type sausage

Reformulation of cooked sausages using high-protein plant-based food such as chickpea as meat extenders and vegetable oils to replace animal fat can be a suitable approach to promote the consumption of smaller portions of meat. The pre-processing of chickpea and the sausage cooking intensity can potentially affect the quality of reformulated sausages. In this study, an emulsion-type sausage made with lamb meat, chickpea and olive oil was prepared in triplicate following three different formulations containing the same targeted levels of protein (8.9%), lipids (21.5%), and starch (2.9%): control sausage (CON; control, without chickpea), and raw (RCP) and cooked chickpea (CCP) sausages (both with 7% chickpea). Sausages were cooked at 85 °C for two heating times (40 min or 80 min) and were analysed for weight loss, emulsion stability, colour, texture, lipid oxidation and volatile composition. Compared to CON sausages, the use of raw chickpea reduced the elasticity and significantly increased lipid oxidation during the sausage-making process resulting in major changes in the volatile composition. The use of previously cooked chickpea, however, resulted in the sausages having greater cooking loss, hardness and chewiness than CON sausages, while there was no difference in lipid oxidation, and differences in volatile compounds were scarce. The reformulation with cooked chickpea could provide a sausage with more similarity to the CON sausage. The extended heating time of 80 min at 85 °C did not significantly affect the quality traits in either CON or reformulated sausages except for a higher cooking loss.

Standardization of process for development of instant chickpea using Desi and Kabuli variety

Chickpea is considered among the most important leguminous crops in the world but is not a regular meal pulse due to their long cooking time and lengthy preparatory procedure. This gives rise to the need of converting raw chickpea into convenient food. For the preparation of instant chickpea from Desi and Kabuli variety, Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) under Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was employed which consisted of four variables i.e. sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3 and temperature for soaking treatments. This design was used to develop models for the soaking time, change in colour, split %, alkalinity and cooking time for prepared instant chickpea samples. High-temperature hydration (60 °C) required lesser time to achieve the maximum hydration, whereas low-temperature hydration (30 °C) enhanced the hydration time and reduced the cooking time of instant chickpea significantly (P≤ 0.01) but this condition was inverse for the splitting/butterfly defects. Increasing the concentration of sodium bicarbonate and ammonium bicarbonate from 0.5 to 1.5 % during soaking treatments increased the splitting and alkalinity and produced undesirable colours in treated samples of chickpea. RSM optimized values concerning concentrations of different salts i.e. NaCl, NaHCO3, and (NH4)2CO3 in soaking solution were 0.59, 0.85 % and 0.82 %, respectively at 49.81 °C temperature for Desi instant chickpea having 11 minutes of cooking time whereas corresponding values for Kabuli chickpea were 1.07 % NaCl, 0.79 % NaHCO3, and 0.70 % (NH4)2CO3 at 46.53 °C temperature with 13 min cooking time.
 Keywords: Central Composite Rotatable Design, Chickpea, Soaking, Cooking time, Instant

Effect of Soybean Meal Substitution with Raw Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Seeds on Growth Performance, Selected Carcass Traits, Blood Parameters, and Bone Quality in Male Broilers

Abstract The study determined the effect of introducing 50% of protein from the protein feed pool derived from raw chickpea seeds (CPR) instead of 50% of soybean meal (SBM) in the rearing period from day 22 to 42 on the coefficients of nutrient digestibility, growth performance, selected carcass traits, the hematological and metabolic profile of blood, and the quality of femur bones in male Ross 308 broilers. The study was carried out on 200 22-day-old male Ross 308 broiler chicks (initial weight of 756 g) randomly assigned to two groups (n=100 in each group; 5 cages with 20 birds each). All birds were reared for 42 days. They were fed isonitrogenous and isoenergetic pre-experimental starter diet (day 1 to 21) in crumble form and experimental grower-finisher diets (day 22 to 42) in pelleted form. From rearing day 22, SBM male broilers (grower/finisher) were fed diets with 100% SBM as a protein source. In the diet for the CPR group (grower and finisher), the SBM protein was replaced with 50% of CPR-derived protein. During the grower and finisher stage and between days 22 and 42, the CPR group exhibited significant (P=0.032) reductions in feed intake (FI), higher (P=0.043) slaughter yields, high (P=0.044) % share of breast muscles, and reduced (P=0.003) abdominal fat content. The addition of CPR influenced some blood parameters. The level of total protein, urea, and Mg decreased, whereas the activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and aspartate transaminase (ALT ) increased. In the CPR group, an increase in the physical, morphometric, and some strength parameters of the femur (maximum elastic strength – Wy, yielding deformation – dy, bone density index – BDI, and Young’s modulus) was observed. Therefore, CPR may be a promising partial substitute of SBM in broiler nutrition, as it enhances production performance and has a beneficial effect on bone quality.

Effect of different roasting methods on the proximate by composition, flow properties, amino acid compositions, colour, texture, and sensory profile of the chickpeas

SummaryRoasting is a common process for chickpeas to improve their texture, palatability, appearance, shelf‐life, physical, and functional properties. This study aimed to determine the effect of different roasting methods (conventional, microwave, and microwave + conventional) on the proximate and amino acid compositions, powder properties, texture, and sensorial properties of the chickpeas. For this purpose three different roasting times (3, 5, and 7 min), microwave powers (100, 300, and 600 W), and microwave roasting + conventional roasting treatment (100 W + 250 °C, 300 W + 250 °C, and 600 W + 250 °C) were applied to raw chickpea samples. The moisture content and water activity values of roasted chickpeas were found to be lower than 7% (w.b.) and 0.50, respectively. The lower ash and protein contents, hygroscopicity value, wettability time and higher fat content and L* value were observed for control compared to roasted samples. The flowability behaviour of the samples was found at a fair level. Roasting methods significantly affected the amount of amino acids in chickpeas but do not reduce the nutritional quality of their proteins. The hardness value of chickpea samples from the suture and cheek angle was decreased parallel to the increase in the roasting temperature and time. The highest sensory scores in terms of general appeal were obtained from the combined group (300 W–250 °C) for 3 min.

Effect of Raw Chickpea in the Broiler Chicken Diet on Intestinal Histomorphology and Intestinal Microbial Populations.

Simple SummaryRaw chickpea seed (CPR) can be an alternative source of cheaper native proteins in the diet of chickens, replacing the standard soybean meal. The present results were obtained in a study on the addition of raw chickpea seeds to replace 50% of soybean meal (SBM) protein in an experimental feed mixture for broiler chickens. We investigated the effect of the substitution on the intestinal histomorphology, intestinal microbial population, and health of broiler chickens.The aim of the study was to determine the effect of partial replacement of SBM protein with CPR-derived protein in the broiler rearing period from 22 to 42 days of age on the intestinal histomorphology and the composition of the intestinal microbial population. Male broiler chicks aged 1 day were assigned to two groups with different nutrition schemes (n = 100 in each, 5 cages of 20 chicks in each). The chickens were reared for 42 days. All birds were fed isonitrogenous and isoenergetic diets: starter (1 to 21 d), grower (22 to 35 d), and finisher (36 to 42 d). From rearing day 22, different diets were provided to the birds: the SBM group received feed with 100% soybean meal protein, and the diet of the CPR group the protein originated from soybean meal was replaced by 50% chickpea protein. The study results indicated a significant impact of the inclusion of CPR in the diet on the basic intestinal structures (thickness of myenteron: submucosa, jejunum and duodenum mucosa, and jejunum transversal lamina). The addition of CPR led to shortening of intestinal villi, an increase in villus thickness, and reduced intestine absorptive surface in the duodenum and jejunum. The CPR group exhibited a significantly lower villus length-to-crypt depth ratio in the jejunum (p < 0.001). The inclusion of chickpeas in the diet increased the total count of mesophilic bacteria and coliforms in the intestinal contents (p < 0.05). In summary, it has been demonstrated that the inclusion of CPR in the diet induced considerable disturbances in metabolism and intestinal structure. Although CPR is a cheap protein source, its use in poultry diet does not ensure development of the intestinal structure comparable to that in the case of an SBM-only diet.

Comparative lactic acid fermentation with five Lactobacillus strains of supernatants made of extruded and saccharified chickpea flour

SummaryGlucose‐rich supernatants were developed based on the enzymatic hydrolysis of raw and extruded chickpea flours first treated with alcalase® and then with a combination of alpha‐amylase and amyloglucosidase or only amyloglucosidase. The optimum treatments were the extruded hydrolysates further treated with amyloglucosidase ‘EF(AMG)’, or the raw chickpea flour treated with a combination of alpha‐amylase and amyloglucosidase ‘RF (Amyl+AMG)’. The resulting supernatants were further fermented with five different strains of Lactobacillus and monitored for 24 h in terms of pH, titratable acidity, and microbial counts. Also, the glucose content and oligosaccharides, total protein, and viability were determined. Both supernatants presented a successful fermentation as estimated by the pH drop (&lt;4.2), lactic acid produced (&gt;0.7%), and microbial counts 9 log (CFU mL−1) which increased up to 5 log during the 24 h fermentation. However, the EF(AMG) supernatant induced fewer reductions in glucose and protein contents in comparison to the RF (Amyl+AMG) counterpart. Among bacteria, the strain Lp 29 in EF(AMG) showed the fastest growth rate (K) and the highest residual protein. In all cases, the proposed technology enhanced the growth of five Lactobacillus strains by taking advantage of the hydrolyzed chickpea chemical composition.

Study on model plant based functional beverage emulsion (non-dairy) using ultrasound – A physicochemical and functional characterization

This study reports the development of non-dairy functional beverage emulsion employing ultrasound (US) of 20 kHz at 130 W and 195 W at processing times of 2 to 8 min using chickpea milk extract and bioactive, flaxseed oil (4%). The pre-emulsion was formed with high shear homogenizer followed by main sonication process. The sonicated emulsions were stored at 4 ± 2 °C till 14 days and characterized for physicochemical and functional properties. A comparative study was carried out using conventional high shear homogenizer (UT) at 10,000 RPM for 5 min. Upon optimization, 130 W − 8 min, 195 W − 6 min and 195 W – 8 min sono-emulsions showed creaming stability of 100%; with particle sizes as 1.12, 0.97 and 0.78 µm; and zetapotential values as − 40.4 mV, −37.52 and −36.91 mV, respectively. The improvement in protein solubility by 86% proved the emulsifying capability of chickpea proteins, which had partially denatured upon physical effects of acoustic cavitation producing stable and finer emulsion droplets. The reduced sedimentation values of sonicated chickpea extract in comparison to UT showed improvement in physical stability of plant-based milk. Oxidative stability is observed for 130 W − 8 min sonicated emulsions with no change in conjugated dienes, indicating the absence of process generated free radicals. The US process did not have any effect on reduction of stachyose content. But extracted chickpea milk had lower amount of stachyose in comparison to raw chickpeas, reducing the flatulence problem, mainly due to adaptation of high temperature pressure cooking process.

Effect of malting and roasting of chickpea on functional and nutritional qualities of its protein fractions

SummaryChickpea is gaining importance as a sustainable plant‐based protein source due to its high protein content and protein bioavailability. Malting and roasting, the traditional processing techniques, can be used to improve the protein quality of chickpea. The effect of two processing techniques on the water‐soluble albumin fraction, salt‐soluble globulin fraction, alcohol‐soluble prolamin fraction, and alkali‐soluble glutelin fraction was studied. Globulin content decreased from 45.85% to 37.08%, whereas the albumin fraction was found to increase from 4.16% to 7.08%, after 6 days of germination. It was observed that malting and roasting resulted in significant changes in the protein quality parameters and decrease in anti‐nutritional factors. Tannin content reduced by 53.18% and 40.44%, and the trypsin inhibitor activity reduced by 14.91% and 34.59% after malting and roasting, respectively. The protein efficiency ratio, biological value, and nutritional index improved due to malting and roasting. The biological value of raw chickpea protein was found to be 74.97%, and it increased to 81.89% and 79.27% on malting and roasting, respectively, and protein digestibility values were also increased. Microstructural and diffraction patterns of chickpea flours were examined. Amino acid scores for infants and adults were calculated, and sulphur‐containing amino acids were found to be the limiting amino acids in chickpea.

Effect of dietary cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L] walp) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) seeds on growth performance, blood parameters and breast meat fatty acids in broiler chickens

The effects of dietary replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with two different protein sources (cowpea [CWP] and chickpea [CKP]) on growth performance (GP), blood parameters and breast meat fatty acids (FA) content were evaluated. A total of 780 one-d-old broiler chicks (Cobb 500) were allocated, over 2 growth phases (starter, 0–21 d; finisher, 22–42 d), to 5 dietary treatments as follow: (1) a corn-SBM basal diet as control; (2) 10% raw cowpea; (3) 20% raw cowpea; (4) 10% raw chickpea and (5) 20% raw chickpea. The results indicated that CWP and CKP diets conducted to similar GP (body weight, body weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio) when compared to the SBM diet, but changes in the content of blood parameters were observed. Glucose and total cholesterol decreased significantly in birds fed CWP (p<.0001) and CKP (p<.001) diet. Also, the use of CWP and CKP had a significant effect on the content of breast muscle FA, especially for alfa-linolenic (p <.0001), eicosapentaenoic (p<.0001), docosapentaenoic (p=.034) and docosahexaenoic (p =.003), which were higher than those fed SBM diet. In addition, there was a significant interaction between the protein source and the inclusion level (S × L) for the majority of the FA’s. Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that CWP and CKP seeds represent an interesting alternative protein sources, which can improve broilers performance, health status and breast fatty acids composition. Highlights Cowpea (CWP) and chickpea (CKP) can be used as replacement for soybean meal in broiler chickens diets, at inclusion levels up to 200 g/kg. Dietary use of CWP and CKP decreased plasma cholesterol and glucose concentration. Use of CWP and CKP in broilers diets positively modified breast meat fatty acids, especially α-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic or docosahexaenoic acids with potential benefits to human nutrition.

Raw Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) as a Substitute of Soybean Meal in Compound Feed for Broiler Chickens: Effects on Growth Performance, Lipid Metabolism, Fatty Acid Profile, Antioxidant Status, and Dietary Value of Muscles.

Simple SummaryDefatted soybean meal is the basic source of protein in poultry diet. Therefore, researchers are searching for an alternative source of vegetable protein derived from native raw materials. The present results were obtained in an experiment consisting in the use of soybean meal in the diet for broiler chickens, or the replacement of 50% of soybean meal protein with raw chickpea seed protein. The impact of the substitution on the poultry production process and on the dietary value of poultry meat was assessed.The aim of this study was to determine the effect of substitution of 50% of soybean meal protein with 310–350 g/kg diet of raw chickpea seed protein on the chemical composition, fatty acid profile, dietary value, and antioxidant status of breast and thigh muscles, as well as the antioxidant status of blood serum, in Ross 308 male broilers. In the 42-day experiment, one-day-old male broiler chicks were assigned to two nutritional groups (n = 100 in each, 20 birds in each group, and 5 replications). In the control group, 100% of protein in the feed was derived from soybean meal. In the experimental group, 310–350 g/kg protein from raw chickpea seeds was introduced. Data with a normal distribution were analyzed using the Student t-test, and the relationships between the traits were assessed with the use of Pearson’s correlation coefficients. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The replacement with chickpea protein did not exert an impact on the final body weight, feed consumption, and feed conversion ratio compared to the control group. However, it induced changes in the color of the breast muscles (increased L* and b* values), and reduced the cholesterol content. The addition of chickpea seeds improved the fatty acid profile, mainly in the breast muscle. A decrease in the total SFA content and a higher level of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA), UFAs/saturated fatty acids (SFAs), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), omega-3, and omega-6 were observed in the experimental group. Additionally, the chickpea-supplemented group exhibited better values of meat quality indicators (atherogenic index-AI; thrombogenic index–TI, ratio of saturated fatty acids to unsaturated fatty acids-S/P, n-6/n-3, hypocholesterolemic/Hypercholesterolemic ratio-h/H). It can be concluded that raw chickpea seeds are a good source of protein in broiler chicken nutrition, and can replace the traditionally used protein source (soybean meal), simultaneously exerting a positive effect on the dietary value of poultry meat and an expected enhancing impact on consumer health.

Comparison of five chickpea varieties, optimization of hydrolysates production and evaluation of biomarkers for type 2 diabetes

The objective was to compare five varieties of chickpea (Cicer arietinum), sequence the peptides obtained with pepsin-pancreatin digestion, and evaluate their potential as modulators of biochemical markers for type-2 diabetes. In addition, to produce a functional ingredient, by the optimization in the production of hydrolysates using bromelain. Proteins of ground raw, precooked and cooked chickpea, were extracted, isolated, and characterized using SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis. Hydrolysates were obtained by simulated digestion with pepsin-pancreatin, and resulting peptides were sequenced with LC-MSMS. Response surface methodology was used to optimize the production of hydrolysates with dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) inhibition using bromelain. Protein profiles showed fractions of convicilin (>70 kDa), 7S vicilin (43–53 kDa), 11S legumin (35 kDa) and lectins (30–32 kDa) in raw varieties. Albumin fractions 2S (20–26 kDa) were still present in most varieties after 2 h of heat treatment. DPPIV IC50 values from digestive enzymes were better (0.17–2.21 mg/mL) in raw chickpea than in cooked chickpea. α-Glucosidase inhibition at 10 mg protein/mL was highest (32–66%) in precooked chickpea hydrolysates. Hydrolysis with bromelain showed a DPPIV inhibition of 94% for Sierra variety cooked for 15 min with 1:10 E/S ratio and hydrolysis time of 60 min. Peptides with DPPIV inhibition were present from albumin fractions (EVLSEVSF) with 908.44 Da and high hydrophobicity; and from legumin (VVFW, FDLPAL) with 549.29 and 674.36 Da, respectively. In conclusion, high DDPIV inhibition can be obtained from chickpea bromelain hydrolysates, with potential as ingredients in different food applications.

In vitro protein digestibility of direct‐expanded chickpea–sorghum snacks

AbstractBlending cereals with pulses provides a balanced protein with higher biological value as their amino acid compositions are complementary. Extrusion not only can improve protein digestibility but also may reduce essential amino acid content. This study investigated the effects of extrusion parameters and blend ratio on in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) and IVPD‐corrected amino acid score (IVPDCAAS) of direct‐expanded chickpea–sorghum snacks. Chickpea–sorghum blends (50:50, 60:40, and 70:30 chickpea:sorghum, w/w) were extruded at 10 combinations of moisture content (16%, 18%, and 20%) and barrel temperature (120°C, 140°C, and 160°C), and at 169°C and 15% moisture, the conditions identified in a previous study as producing maximal expansion. Chickpea and sorghum flours were extruded at 140°C and 18% moisture for comparison purposes. The IVPD of raw 50:50, 60:40, and 70:30 chickpea–sorghum blends ranged from 76% to 78%; values for raw chickpea and sorghum flours were 79% and 74%, respectively. Extrusion increased IVPD (P &lt; 0.05) of all flours and blends. An increase in extrusion temperature increased the IVPD of extrudates (P &lt; 0.05), whereas an increase in moisture content had the opposite effect (P &lt; 0.05). The IVPDCAAS of raw 50:50, 60:40, and 70:30 chickpea–sorghum blends were 0.64, 0.72, and 0.73, respectively; values for raw chickpea and sorghum flours were 0.74 and 0.27, respectively. Extrusion increased IVPDCAAS (P &lt; 0.05). The 70:30 chickpea–sorghum blend extruded at the maximal expansion exhibited the highest protein quality indicating this to be the optimal condition for snack production.

Chemical, thermal and structural properties of alkaline‐cooked (nixtamalised) chickpea (Cicer arietinum) flours

SummaryThe present study examined how the alkaline cooking process affects the chemical, thermal and structural properties of the chickpea, evaluating different lime concentrations. Cooking was carried out at 94 °C, with two times of water for 15 min with five different lime concentrations. Regarding chemical composition, a decrease in protein and fat was observed: from 23.64% to a range of 18.26–19.93% for protein and from 8.20% to a range of 6.05–7.74% for fat. However, an increase was observed for ash and mineral content. The same pattern was observed for potassium. Raw chickpea did not present endotherm retrogradation, but a higher endotherm retrogradation was presented in chickpea cooked without lime, denoting that nixtamalisation decreased retrogradation. Additionally, V‐amylose relative crystallinity increased with concentration of lime. Protein digestibility increases by β‐sheet dismissing structure. Finally, it was observed that steeping time plays a key role in the nixtamalisation process.

Study the properties of a chickpea-based jelly product

The consumption of food products with low consumer properties is the reason for a decrease in a life quality as well as for a number of diseases development among the population. Meanwhile, the annual volume of confectionery production and their consumption is increasing, which requires an expansion of the assortment in this group. A jelly product was developed, using the unusual raw materials chickpeas (Cicer arietinum). During the formulation development the samples with high organoleptic characteristics were obtained. To determine the rheological properties, 1% agar solutions with sucrose content of 25% and with different contents of chickpea puree were examined. Additionally, the effect of the sucrose amount on agar jellies was studied. The samples were 1% agar solutions with different sucrose content. Thus, when developing a formulation with agar, for the desired result it is worth considering the amount of sucrose and chickpea puree, which affect the strength of the agar gel.