Raw Cashew Research Articles

Production of a high-energy solid biofuel from biochar produced from cashew nut shells

The aim of the study is to produce a solid biofuel of high physico-mechanical and energetic quality from heat-treated cashew nut shells. Raw cashew nut shells are heat treated at 300 °C for 120 min at a heating rate of 1 °C/s. The resulting biochar is milled to 74 μm. Sugar cane molasses was incorporated into the biochar powder at a rate of 10% without the addition of water. The mass yields of solid, liquid and gaseous products obtained were 46.5%, 27.6% and 25.9% respectively. The solid biofuel produced has slightly improved physicochemical and energy properties over biochar, except ash and moisture content. Thus, the addition of binder and densification increased the ash and moisture content of the solid biofuel compared to the biochar obtained. With a higher calorific value of 33.02 MJ/kg, the solid biofuel has high water resistance and meets the quality requirements of class A1 of the NF EN ISO 17225-6 standard in terms of density and mechanical strength. Solid biofuel is ideal for use in households and biomass power stations.

A Study on Technological Advancements in Cashew Processing Machines in India

This article theoretically analyses about the “A Study on Technological Advancements in Cashew Processing Machines in India.” In addition to being a significant cash crop, cashew is one of the most valuable processed nuts traded on the world's commodity markets. Cashew is grown on 9,23,000 hectares of land in India, where it produces 613,000 MT and has a productivity of 0.7 MT/ha. With a 32.3% share, Maharashtra leads the nation in cashew output. For its kernels, it is extensively grown across the tropics. It is produced in a few plain regions of Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh as well as on the east and west coasts of India. In Maharashtra, productivity is shown to be the highest. With a 25.52% global output share, India is the world's biggest cashew producer. About 230 kg (23%) are created for every metric ton of raw cashew seed produced and processed in India. This study employed frameworks such as the SWOT and PEST analyses to analyses market trends. Though India is one of the leading producers of cashew, still they were using one of the traditional methods to processing the cashew nuts. The study enhances about the marketing strategies which should be followed to develop the cashew processing machines in India.

A Novel Cardanol-Based Monoglyceride Using Cashew Nut Shell Liquid

Phenol is a widely used non-renewable petrochemical resource in many organic syntheses, hence sourcing phenolic derivatives from renewable resources is an important concern. In this study, a novel monoglyceride (MG) was synthesized utilizing “cardanol” as a starting material, which is an eco-friendly and natural phenolic derivative. Cardanol was obtained by the decarboxylation of anacardic acid present in raw cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL). It was then reacted with maleic anhydride (MA) to synthesize a novel mono-phenyl maleate (MPM) derivative with a purity of 65.5%. This product was subjected to a direct esterification with glycerol to obtain the novel MG. Based on the per-iodic oxidation method, the percentage composition of the monoglyceride was obtained to be 70.1%. It showed high thermal stability up to 250 ℃. This MG being a thermally stable di-functional compound makes it a potential novel monomer that can be used to synthesize novel alkyd resins with enhanced properties in the future.

Marketing of raw cashew nut in Konkan region: An economic analysis

Marketing of raw cashew nut in Konkan region: An economic analysis

Aspergillus population diversity and its role in aflatoxin contamination of cashew nuts from coastal Kenya.

Cashew nuts are among the main cash crops in coastal Kenya, due in large part to their high nutritional value. Unfortunately, they also make them highly susceptible to mold contamination, resulting in biodeterioration of the nutritional value and potential contamination with toxic secondary metabolites, such as aflatoxins, that cause them to be rejected for sale at the market. We determined the population diversity of the Aspergillus species and their role in aflatoxin contamination in cashew nuts in selected coastal regions of Kenya. Fifty raw cashew nut samples were collected from post-harvest storage facilities across three counties in Kenya's coastal region and examined for moisture content and the presence of Aspergillus fungi. About 63 presumptive isolates were recovered from the cashew nuts. ITS and 28S rDNA regions were sequenced. The aflD, aflM and aflR genes were amplified to identify the potentially aflatoxigenic from the Aspergillus isolates. The Aflatoxins' presence on the isolates was screened using UV and the ammonia vapour test on coconut milk agar and validated using ELISA assay. A comparison of cashew moisture content between the three counties sampled revealed a significant difference. Sixty-three isolates were recovered and identified to section based on morphological characters and their respective ITS regions were used to obtain species identifications. Three sections from the genus were represented, Flavi and Nigri, and Terrei with isolates from the section Nigri having slightly greater abundance (n = 35). The aflD, aflM and aflR genes were amplified for all isolates to assess the presence of the aflatoxin biosynthesis pathway, indicating the potential for aflatoxin production. Less than half of the Aspergillus isolates (39.68%) contained the aflatoxin pathway genes, while 22.22% isolates were aflatoxigenic, which included only the section Flavi isolates. Section Flavi isolates identification was confirmed by calmodulin gene. The presence of species from Aspergillus section Flavi and section Nigri indicate the potential for aflatoxin or ochratoxin in the cashew nuts. The study established a foundation for future investigations of the fungi and mycotoxins contaminating cashew nuts in Kenya, which necessitates developing strategies to prevent infection by mycotoxigenic fungi, especially during the storage and processing phases.

Nutrient Intake and Nitrogen Balance of West African Dwarf Goats Fed Raw Cashew Nut Shell Diets

A study was conducted using twenty (20) growing West African Dwarf (WAD) bucks with an average weight of 6.74 ± 0.33 kg to determine the nutrient intake and nitrogen balance. The goats were allotted to four dietary treatments with five goats replicates per treatment in a completely randomized design. The raw cashew nut shell was sun-dried and crushed to a particle size of less than 1 cm. The cashew nut shell was incorporated in the diets at the rate of 0% (diet A), 5% (diet B), 10% (diet C) and 15% (diet D) respectively. The experimental period lasted for 63days excluding 2weeks of adaptation. The chemical and mineral compositions of the diets were determined. Result showed that chemical composition were significantly (P < 0.05) influenced by the raw cashew nut shell. The crude protein ranged from 7.16 to 7.89% while the crude fiber varied from 22.45 to 24.01%. Calcium and Phosphorus content increased with increased level of raw cashew nut shell. Sodium ranged from 17.47 to 23.00% while magnesium varied from 9.34 to 12.94%. Goats fed diets A had the highest nitrogen balance (8.57 g/day) and highest percentage of nitrogen retention (86.58%) which is statistically similar to the values obtained in goats fed diet B; (8.34 g/day nitrogen balance and 84.58% percentage nitrogen retention). However, dry matter intake recorded in this study were significantly (P < 0.05) influenced by the inclusion levels of raw sundried cashew nut shell in the diet. Goats fed diets A had the highest dry matter intake (456.37 g/day) while goats fed diet D had the least (207.69 g/day). Crude protein intake and crude fiber intake increased as the levels of raw cashew nut shell increased in diets. In conclusion, feeding of raw sundried cashew nut shell at 5% could provide good quality replacement ingredient to ruminants especially during the dry season for improved performance and productivity.

Effects of Different Packaging Methods on the Shelf Life of Cashew Nuts and Kernels

Cashew, Anacadium occidentale is a nut crop considered essential simply because it provides food and employment to millions of people in developing nations. It is cultivated mainly for its nut; a very important export commodity. Dried cashew nuts and kernels that are improperly packaged and stored are prone to spoilage and rejections both in local and export markets. This study was conducted to assess the effects of different packaging methods on the quality of cashew nuts and kernel. Two hundred (200) kg of cashew nuts were procured each, from four states, Oyo and Osun (Southwest); Kwara and Kogi (North Central) Nigeria. The nuts were dried using parabolic solar dryer fixed with data logger for three days. One kg sample in three replicates was taken from each State’s lot and analyzed for initial quality parameters using Nut count (NC) and Kernel Output Ratio methods (KOR). Two hundred kilograms kg of dried raw cashew nut (RCN) (10% MC) taken from 50 kg each from across the States were thoroughly mixed and divided into two lots of 100 kg each. The first lot of 100 kg was processed into kernels (PCK) while the remaining 100 kg was used for RCN storage studies. Physical, chemical microbiological and entomological analyses were evaluated on RCN and PCK at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 months. RCN was stored using three different types of packaging; Jute bag, paper-lined jute bag and paper-lined carton, while cashew kernels (PCK) were stored using five different types of packaging methods; Polythene, Polythene lined polypropylene, paper lined polyethylene, polythene lined carton and paper lined carton. Paper lined jute bag was the best packaging method for nut storage while, polythene lined polypropylene was the best for kernel storage. Cashew kernels are easily stored in smaller spaces than the nut (ratio 1:5).

Cashew processing in Ghana – A case for infant industry support?

West Africa produces almost half of the world's cashew nuts. With the domestic cashew processing industry still in its infancy, however, most of it is exported as raw material and processed in India and Vietnam. In Ghana, this is provoking discussions about market interventions to support domestic processing. Since different price policies have diverging implications for farmers and processors, the choice of the policy instrument leads to conflicts of interest between the two groups. In this study, we analyse the short- and long-term economic impacts of enhancing cashew processing through (i.) a temporary export tax on raw cashew nuts, (ii.) a temporary subsidy to cashew processors, and (iii.)a temporary export tax on raw cashew nuts, with government revenues passed on to cashew growers. For this purpose, we develop a partial equilibrium model for the Ghanaian cashew market including the processing from raw cashew nuts to kernels. We find that in the short run, all price policies lead to a substantial increase in processing at the expense of net welfare. We argue, however, that the sector may experience productivity gains through learning by doing and thus, after price policies are phased out, stick to its increased level of output such that short-term welfare losses could be recouped. Therefore, temporarily introduced price policies could help the infant cashew processing industry to grow up, promote the development of the domestic cashew sector, and be welfare-enhancing in the long run. A subsidy to processors is the most appropriate option to achieve this.

Cashew Production and Breeding in 5 West African Countries

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) Is an evergreen perennial tree crop that produce hard greyish nut enclosing a white nutritious kernel. The kernel is one of the major edible nuts or snacks with increasing global demand. The world's largest and most active cashew production region is in West Africa; where Cote d’ivoire, Nigeria, Benin, Guinea-bissau and Ghana top the list of countries where it thrives best. Since 2014, cashew has become the second-main crop after cocoa in terms of export value, in these countries. It is one of the essential agricultural commodities that have significantly boosted the continent of Africa's GDP, foreign exchange profits, and overall worth due to the rising demand for raw cashew nuts. Cote d'ivoire has profited from a few research and development programs in nut quality control. Efforts are on to enhance the peel-ability of Nigerian cashews and to produce improved planting material with the help of private sector investment. Cashew cultivars development of Guinea-bissau has not made significant progress, due to few resources available for doing research. In Ghana, there are efforts to increase the genetic diversity of cashews, and in Benin, numerous farmers have reported inadequate output from their cashew fields. Narrow genetic diversity has been reported in west African cashew gene pools. Low productivity, poor nut quality, infestation of pests and diseases, poor funding, and other factors continue to limit cashew production in West Africa. Improvement in nut yield, nut quality, and broadening of cashew genetic base is important to the sustainability of the region’s cashew sector. This paper provides an overview of current status of cashew production and breeding in the top five cashew producing countries of West African; the challenges, and opportunities for future improvement.

An Assessment of the Marketing Challenges Faced by Cashew Farmers in Kombo South District of The Gambia

Aims: This study examined the marketing challenges faced by cashew farmers in Kombo South District of The Gambia. The objectives of the study were to ascertain the challenges faced by cashew farmers and to identify ways of mitigating them in the study area.
 Study Design: Descriptive research design.
 Place and Duration of Study: The was conducted in Kombo South District of the Gambia between June and August, 2020.
 Methodology: The study included all male and female farmers within the ages of 18-75 years in the villages that constitute the Kombo South District in the Gambia. A sample of 384 cashew famers was selected from a population of 9318 farmers using Taro Yamane formula.
 Results: The findings of the study revealed that majority of farmers are affected by unstable domestic market prices of raw cashew nuts, lack of market information, poor road networks, large number of middlemen, lack of modern packaging materials, inadequate storage facilities, weak or no cashew farmer organizations, and the presence of pest and diseases.
 Conclusion: The study, therefore recommended that the government and other relevant stakeholders should help in providing timely market information especially with regards to current prices of raw cashew nuts, rehabilitation of road networks and telecommunication systems to allow farmers to verify prices or sell in better markets, provision of modern packaging materials, adequate storage facilities and trainings on formation and management of farmer organizations will be vital for cashew farmers.

Reactions of cashew grafted seedlings to different formulas of mineral and organic fertilizers as bottom dressing in plantation

The yield of raw cashew nuts in Benin remains relatively low, mainly because of the planting material used by farmers. Indeed, cashew tree producers use the nuts all-from previous years for the installation of plantations. The use of grafted seedlings is today an alternative, to improve the yield of new plantations. However, grafted plants are fragile and don’t survive easily the dry season of the year in which they are planted, with a high mortality rate due to their fragility. This research conducted on tropical ferruginous soils in Central Benin aims to evaluate the reaction of grafted cashew seedlings to different formulas of mineral and organic fertilizers applied as bottom fertilization. For the study, a Randomized Complete Block Design with three repetitions was installed. Each repetition consists of 11 treatments. The generalized linear model (glm) was used to perform the analysis of variance with SPSS v21 software which to compare the effects of the treatments. The organo-mineral formulas N40P80K72 + 2 kg of poultry droppings and N40P80 + 2 kg of poultry droppings applied as bottom manure allowed for better results in terms of recovery and growth parameters of grafted plants installed in the field. These fertilizer formulas allowed the grafted cashew plants to survive 85% and 80% respectively after installation. They also improved height growth, vigor and the ability to emit many leaves. To reduce the mortality rate of cashew transplants, these fertilizer formulas can be suggested to growers for the establishment of new plantations.

Exotic storage pests intercepted in raw cashew nuts shipments imported into India and cost of salvaging the intercepted material

Exotic storage pests intercepted in raw cashew nuts shipments imported into India and cost of salvaging the intercepted material

Impact of Cashew Nut Trade Policy on Household and Government Revenues in Senegal: A Dynamic Computable General Equilibrium Model Analysis

The objective of this paper is to assess the medium and long term sectoral impacts of a trade policy on the cashew nut sector in Senegal. Thus we used the dynamic computable general equilibrium model which was inspired by the dynamic PEP model (PEP-1-t) developed by Decaluwé et al (2010) to simulate the impact of a 10% tax on raw cashew nut exports on the sectors of activity and on household and government income. The accounting framework of the model is the 2017 Senegal Social Accounting Matrix (SAM), from which we disaggregated the agricultural branch to isolate the cashew sector. The results of the simulation showed that a policy of taxing raw cashew nut exports from Senegal at a rate of 10% would have a negative impact in the medium and long term on the value added of the cashew nut sector, as it would decrease over the period 2017 to 2022. This decline would be explained by a drop in export demand for the product, which is linked to the sector's loss of competitiveness. On the other hand, this policy would benefit the other sectors, particularly the agricultural sector for which the value added would increase during the period. This policy would also negatively affect the income and savings of urban and rural households. However, the government would benefit from the measure since its income would increase over the period.

The Effect of Market Channels and Prices on the Income and Livelihood of Cashew Farmers in Kombo South District of the Gambia

This study examined the effect of market channels and prices on the income and livelihood of cashew farmers in Kombo South District of The Gambia. The objectives of the study were to ascertain include the types of market channels and their impacts on the income and livelihood of cashew farmers. A sample of 384 cashew famers was selected from Kombo South District using Taro Yamane formula. The findings of the study revealed that the main actors in the cashew market channels were wholesalers and retailers who serve as middlemen and they impose prices on the farmers. The findings also indicated that majority of the farmers sold their raw cashew nuts at a low price in 2020 than the previous year. The findings indicate that highlighted that market channels dictate prices and therefore affect the income and livelihoods of farmers, and also cause loss of jobs in plantations. The study therefore recommended that Cashew farmers should form cooperative societies as this will be the easiest channel through which their predicaments can be heard, and other benefits such as insecticides, fertilizers, soft loans and even grants can be accessed. The government should assist farmers in seasons where international prices are very low to prevent poverty and hunger and value addition in cashew nuts should be a priority especially with Food Technology Services (FTS) of the Department of Agriculture (DoA).

Detecting bee’s floral preference in cashew orchards: A path towards preservation and management of bee communities and improvement of cashew productivity in Côte d’Ivoire

In spite of the low agronomic performances of Ivorian cashew orchards, Côte d'Ivoire recently became the first worldwide producer and exporter of raw cashew nuts. To maintain this ringleader position, several factors should be understood including the ecological factors supporting this success. Pollination service due to bees was recognized to impact cashew production. Therefore, determining cashew trees that are more attractive to bees can contribute to promote pollination activities. To detect these cashew trees possessing the flowers preferred by bees, two types of investigations were undertaken: (1) a socioeconomic survey in 3167 cashew hectares belonging to 381 producers and (2) an experimental detection of the bees’ floral preference. As results, 58 of the 381 interviewed producers had identified the bees’ floral preference resulting in a detection of 681 cashew trees. The flowers of the preferred cashew trees were visited 5 times more and they attracted 3 times more bee foragers as compared to non-preferred cashew trees. These findings may be included in research programs focus on: (i) improvement of agronomic performances and (ii) effective management of bees’ community.

Relationship between personal and socio-economic characteristics of the cashewnut growers and their adoption level

India is the largest producer of raw cashew in the world which ranks first in area under cashew (8, 55, 000 ha) with an annual production of 6.20 lakh MT. Nigeria ranks second in area under the cashewnut cultivation, but ranks first in cashewnut production with annual production of 6.36 lakh MT. In the year 2007-2008, India had exported 1,34,340 metrics tonnes of raw cashew valued Rs.11.97crore. The cashew production in Maharashtra is mainly concentrated in Konkan region particularly in Ratnagiri district. In Maharashtra, the area under cashew was 1.65lakh ha. In Ratnagiri, area under cashew was 88,612ha with production of 85,822 tonnes of cashewnuts. The exploratory survey research design was used for the present study. The study was conducted in Ratnagiri district of the Konkan region of Maharashtra state. Three tahsils namely, Khed and Dapoli were selected purposively on the basis of the maximum area under cashewnut cultivation. The main objective of this study is to study the relationship between personal and socio-economic characteristics of the cashewnut growers and their adoption level. It was observed during the study that, The relationship between selected characteristics of the cashew growers and adoption of recommended critical crop management practices for the cashew crop revealed that the characteristics namely age, family size, and number of bearing cashewnut trees were non-significantly related with the adoption level of critical crop management practices for the cashew crop. On the other hand, education, land holding, annual income, age of orchard, production from cashewnut tree, experience in cashew cultivation and market orientation were significantly related with adoption level. The present study was used as a multistage sampling procedure. Collected data were classified, tabulated and analyzed by using statistical methods like frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation and Chi-square.

Assessing drivers of post-harvest losses: tangible and intangible resources’ perspective

Many stakeholders in agro-food industry are concerned about sustainability, especially in addressing post-harvest loss (PHL). However, resources available to various supply chain stakeholders such as in the raw cashew nuts (RCNs) supply network to address PHL remain a challenge. The extant literature on PHL has limited intricate insight into its drivers from the perspective of resources. This paper, focusing on RCNs supply network, systematically identifies and analyzes critical drivers that influence PHL guided by tangible and intangible resources’ perspective. Fuzzy-Decision Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (Fuzzy-DEMATEL) methodology was employed to analyze and convert an experts’ judgment into quantifiable data to establish the causal relationship among the drivers. The findings reveal that urgent and short-term attention to address PHL in the RCNs supply network should be given to the primary tangible driver of lack/insufficient proper packaging materials. Furthermore, in medium-term strategies, RCNs suppliers and government agencies in-charge of agriculture and industry bodies need to surmount three key cause drivers consisting of premature/green harvesting of cashew nuts, financial and economic constraints and lack of appropriate storage facility. In addition, drivers such as insufficient/lack of management support and commitment and lack of information dissemination on PHL within RCNs suppliers should be addressed in the long term. The study provides a framework for supply chain managers and policymakers to understand the interrelationship among PHL drivers from a resource perspective to enable the implementation of strategies that address PHL.

Phytochemicals and Chemical Compositions of Raw Cashew (Anarcardium occidantale) Nuts Sourced from Enugu State, South Eastern Nigeria

a peer-reviewed, open access online international journal which publishes original research papers. The journal welcomes submission from scholars and experts for possible publication from all over the world. The scope of the journal includes: Pharmaceutical research, chemistry and biochemistry of naturally occurring compounds, biological evaluation of crude extracts, ethnomedicine, traditional and complementary medicine, ethnopharmacology, biomedical research, Biotechnology, Evaluation of natural substances of land and sea and of plants, microbes and animals, pharmacognosy, bioavailability, clinical, pharmacological, toxicological studies and pharmacokinetics of phytochemicals, Isolation and characterization of compounds, structure elucidation, synthesis and experimental biosynthesis of natural Product as well as developments of methods in these areas are welcomed in the journal.

Assessment of the Natural Landscape Changes Due to Cashew Plantations in the Department of Niakaramandougou (North of Côte d’Ivoire)

In the past twenty years, Cote d’Ivoire has risen from being an insignificant producer of raw cashew nuts to becoming the world’s largest producer. A rapid increase of cashew plantations has significantly changed the natural landscape in the North part of Cote d’Ivoire. This study was conducted in the department of Niakaramadougou to assess the natural landscape change due to cashew plantations from 1989 to 2017. Satellite image data were used in order to evaluate land use land cover (LULC) change. The maximum likelihood pixel-based on classification method was used to analyze the spatio-temporal LULC dynamics for the years 1989, 2000, and 2017. The results showed an increase in cashew culture by 20.68% between 1989 and 2017 to the detriment of the savannah. Thus, the land devoted to old fallows or to other crops such as rice, maize, yams, peanuts, sorghum) is decreasing and the natural vegetation is becoming more and more fragmented, with consequences that are not yet known. This surely contributes to the reduction of plant diversity.

Improvement of Cashew Apple Juice (<i>Anacardium occidentale</i> L.) by Association with Passion Fruit Juice (<i>Passiflora edulis</i>)

Despite many advantages, the many technologies studied to eliminate astringency from cashew apple juice are not all accessible and not adopted by processors due to the lack of financial means to access these sophisticated technologies. Thus, the formulation of mixed juice based on cashew apple juice and passion fruit juice has proved to be a way of adding value to the cashew apple, a co-product of the production of the nut. After the formulation of the mixed juice in different proportions and the sensory evaluation, it appears that the juice of formulation E is more appreciated by the tasters. Indeed, this juice has preferred sensory characteristics in terms of color (6.90), flavor (5.47), odor (6.42), settling (6.28) and overall acceptance (6.53). These characteristics are similar to those of passion fruit juice in terms of color, odor, and overall acceptance, where the latter obtained scores of 6.94, 7.17 and 6.00 respectively; and also, to those of cashew apple juice in terms of flavor and decanting, where the latter obtained scores of 5.19 and 6.14 respectively. Therefore, the addition of passion fruit juice to cashew apple juice results in a new product that is more appreciated when mixed with proportions of 90 mL of passion fruit juice and 10 mL of cashew apple juice. For example, passion fruit juice, due to its color, flavor, and odor, has helped reduce the pronounced astringency of raw cashew apple juice. Ultimately, formulation E is recommended to improve the organoleptic value of cashew apple juice.