Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test Research Articles

SOCIAL COGNITION AND OXIDATIVE STRESS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA PATIENTS AND FIRST-DEGREE RELATIVES OF PATIENTS.

Misattribution of motivational salience to non-salient (neutral) stimuli could be viewed as a hallmark of psychosis in schizophrenia. Studies have recently revealed increased subjective experience of emotional arousal (EA) to neutral social stimuli in paranoid schizophrenia psychosis, suggesting a misattribution of emotional salience to them. We examined this phenomenon directly by quantifying the level of EA subjectively attributed to low-arousal, neutral-valenced faces. Patients with remitted schizophrenia (PG) (n=26), first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients (RG) (n=25), and healthy controls (HCG) (n=36) were compared in terms of oxidative stress parameters -serum Superoxide Dismutase, Catalase, Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx), Nitrite, Nitrate, Malondialdehyde, and Total Glutathione levels-, social cognition measured by the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test and working memory measured by the N-back Task. Groups were compared, assuming that HCG had a genetically lower risk of schizophrenia compared to PG and RG. HCG performed significantly better than PG and RG, who were genetically at high risk, in terms of social cognition (respectively p=0.000, p=0.014), working memory (respectively p=0.001, p=0.003), and had statistically lower Glutathione Peroxidase (GPX) level than the PG and RG (both p:0.000). After controlling for the effect of the general intellectual abilities measured by the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test and working memory the differences between groups on the Eyes Test disappeared (p=0.057). However, this value tended to be significant. It was concluded that social cognition and working memory and GPx level may be used as endophenotypes and social cognition, working memory, and general intellectual skills are different but strongly related constructs. Endophenotypes guide treatment targets even after the disease has developed. The results of our study showed that in addition to psychopharmacological treatments, interventions to reduce oxidative stress and approaches to improve cognitive skills will have a positive impact on the disease's progression.

Evaluation of neuropsychological characteristics and attention bias in juvenile offenders, juvenile victims, and juveniles who have not participated in the criminal justice system.

The increasing inclusion of children in the criminal justice system as "juvenile offenders" and "juvenile victims" has recently emerged as a severe and multifaceted problem. This study evaluates whether juvenile offenders differ from juveniles who have not participated in the criminal justice system and juvenile victims regarding executive function skills and attentional bias. The participant group comprised 85 children aged 12-18, and the study setting was Turkey, utilizing one control group and two treatment groups with open criminal case files in Antalya Courthouse. The first treatment group consisted of 30 juvenile offenders; the second consisted of 30 juvenile victims. The control group consisted of 25 juveniles who were not juvenile offenders or victims. In this context, children's executive functions were measured with the short-form Barratt Impulsivity Scale, the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test, the TBAG-form Stroop test, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, and the Istanbul 5 Cube Planning Test. Attentional bias was measured using a dot-probe task. Illiteracy, intellectual or developmental disability, and being a non-native Turkish speaker were the exclusion criteria for all three groups. The study found that the scores of the juvenile offender group on the Barratt Impulsivity Scale were significantly higher than the children in the juvenile victim group and the children in the control group. For other tests measuring executive functions, the control group's scores were significantly higher than juvenile offenders and juvenile victims. Regarding attentional bias, the children in the control group exhibited less attentional bias to negative stimuli than the juvenile offenders and victims. Researchers have generally addressed the reasons that push children to crime and become victims of crime through individual, familial, and environmental reasons. However, the number of studies investigating the neuropsychological characteristics of children dragged into crime is relatively limited in our country. In addition, there is no study comparing the executive functions and attentional bias of children who are dragged into crime, victimized children, and children without a history of being dragged into crime and victimization. In this context, this study can highlight important implications for the judicial system regarding juvenile delinquency interventions.

Parietal Alpha Oscillations: Cognitive Load and Mental Toughness.

Cognitive effort is intrinsically linked to task difficulty, intelligence, and mental toughness. Intelligence reflects an individual’s cognitive aptitude, whereas mental toughness (MT) reflects an individual’s resilience in pursuing success. Research shows that parietal alpha oscillations are associated with changes in task difficulty. Critically, it remains unclear whether parietal alpha oscillations are modulated by intelligence and MT as a personality trait. We examined event-related (de)synchronization (ERD/ERS) of alpha oscillations associated with encoding, retention, and recognition in the Sternberg task in relation to intelligence and mental toughness. Eighty participants completed the Sternberg task with 3, 4, 5 and 6 digits, Raven Standard Progressive Matrices test and an MT questionnaire. A positive dependence on difficulty was observed for all studied oscillatory effects (t = −8.497, p < 0.001; t = 2.806, p < 0.005; t = −2.103, p < 0.05). The influence of Raven intelligence was observed for encoding-related alpha ERD (t = −2.02, p = 0.049). The influence of MT was observed only for difficult conditions in recognition-related alpha ERD (t = −3.282, p < 0.005). Findings indicate that the modulation of alpha rhythm related to encoding, retention and recognition may be interpreted as correlates of cognitive effort modulation. Specifically, results suggest that effort related to encoding depends on intelligence, whereas recognition-related effort level depends on mental toughness.

Bender-Gestalt II Test: Psychometric Properties with Global Scoring System on a Turkish Standardization Sample

ABSTRACT The present study aims to standardize the Bender-Gestalt II Test by exploring its psychometric properties on a Turkish sample between the ages of 4 and 17 years and to obtain its normative values. The standardization sample consisted of 2691 students aged 4.0–17.11 years/months from low, middle, and high socioeconomic statuses, attending preschool, primary, and high school education. The participants were administered the Bender-Gestalt II Test and other tests, including the Gesell Developmental Schedules test, Colored Progressive Matrices Test, Goodenough Draw-a-Man Test, Test of Nonverbal Intelligence, Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test, and Visual-Aural Digit Span Test-Revised Form, according to their age groups. The results revealed the absolute agreement values of the Copy items to be between .87 and .98. Thereafter, we calculated the test-retest reliability coefficients of the Copy scores to range from .74 to .67 by age groups, while the split-half reliability coefficients for each age group were between .62 and .87. The results of the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses suggested its single-factor structure for all age groups. The Copy scores showed significant correlations and predicted the criterion characteristics, which include general cognitive ability, mental development/fine motor skills, short-term memory, and attention. Overall, the present study confirmed that the Bender-Gestalt II Test is a valid, reliable, and standardized measure to evaluate the visual-motor integration ability of those aged 4.0–17.11 years/months.

Intelligence matters for stochastic feedback processing during sequence learning in adolescents and young adults

The ability to effectively handle partly false feedback is an important skill because it can disrupt an already mastered ability. An instant and drastic deterioration occurred in 8- to 11-year-old children's sequence learning of four left-right button presses from close to ceiling performance with 100% deterministic feedback to about 30% accuracy when they encountered stochastic feedback that was only 85% correct and 15% randomly false (Lange-Küttner et al., 2012). However, children's performance recovered in repeated trials, but only after positive feedback even if it was false. The present study investigates whether this deterioration and recovery from partly false feedback still occurs in adolescents and young adults. We tested whether coping with partly false feedback is dependent on intelligence with the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test, or rather occurs because of better developed coping and defending in the social domain with the Cognitive Emotional Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ). In a sample of N = 75 adolescents from 13 years onwards until young adulthood, cognitive performance was low when encountering stochastic feedback, at 55.5% accuracy on average, but improved during repetitions. Intelligence was more important than emotional coping for successful processing of stochastic, partly false feedback. Also in adolescence and young adulthood, positive feedback appeared to support perseverance as it yielded significantly more recovery than negative feedback. Coping was not needed for recovery from partly false or negative feedback, but there were some rare cases of high intelligence and low positive coping skills with exceptionally low sequencing performance.

A Research on the relationship between problem-solving appraisal, attention, and visuospatial skills of first-year architecture students

The first-year students in architectural education must deal with design exercises and studio processes that involve problems they have not encountered before. It is essential to understand the intellectual and cognitive personal resources students use to deal with the unique problems and issues of the first year. Attention and their appraisal of their own problem-solving skills can be presented as one of the primary personal resources. These resources should be considered in terms of student-centered and personalized, healthy, and sustainable learning. This dimension of learning is of great importance, especially in the emergency distance education process due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The objective of the study is to investigate the relationship between problem-solving appraisal, attention, and visuospatial skills of first-year architecture students. The research is an experimental study. Neuropsychological assessment tools and scales were used. There are Turkish standardization studies for these neuropsychological assessment tools. These tools have norm values on a healthy sample, which were benefited as control group scores. For visuospatial skills, Raven Standard Progressive Matrices test and Benton Judgment of Line Orientation test;for attention, STROOP test TBAG version were administrated. Problem-Solving Appraisal Inventory were given to record the students' their own validation and assessment on their own problem-solving skills. Participants were volunteer first-year architecture students, who complied with the inclusion criteria. The sample was composed of 40 (26, %65.0, female, 14, %35.0, male) students. Age range was 18-22. It was observed that the students participating in the study evaluated their own problem-solving skills positively. It was found that female participants evaluated their problem-solving skills as more advanced regarding to planfulness factor, whereas for male students it was the self-confidence factor. The neuropsychological test performances of the participants who evaluate their own problem-solving skills negatively were lower. Findings suggest that participants whose problem-solving skills are incompatible with the age group need improvement in decision-making, action, part-whole relationship, visual motor speed, and resistance to confounders or distractors. It was concluded that students who evaluated themselves as better problem solvers in evaluative approach, self-confidence and planfulness dimensions performed better in visuospatial assessment. Architectural education raises issues and challenges which might be quite problematic for the first-year students. Students are expected to gain knowledge, skills, and competence in a new field. Design exercise itself is either undefined or ill-defined. Focusing mainly on the non-working, inconsistent, or missed opportunities instead of positive aspects of the design proposal initiates new challenges that the students must encounter. Students are expected to formulate and manage their problem-solving challenge, which is mostly supported with negative feedbacks and criticism. It is possible to claim that the academic performance of a person who is made to feel worthless by reinforcing their negative judgments about their own skills and competencies decreases. Creativity and innovation, critical thinking, problem solving, decision making, learning to learn, metacognitive awareness, communication and collaboration are the 21st century skills which are the key skills preparing the societies and individual to the future. The COVID-19 pandemic and the measures taken to combat the epidemic, especially emergency distance education, have reminded the vital importance of the skills mentioned above. The skills emerge and develop individually on the basis of personal resources and individual's social context. The idea that these skills can be improved by means of architectural design education is not a defensible claim within the scientific framework of learning and development. Studies in the areas of learning and development recommend the understanding, evaluation and appraisal of the student's own personal intellectual and cognitive resources. The design exercise proceeds through processes similar to solving real life problems. The studio environment can be defined as a social learning environment based on problem solving. How first year architecture students appraise their own problem-solving skills has not been studied sufficiently. The benefits of these research can be listed as follows: Students' individual differences can be revealed. Changes in their academic performance can be observed. Students' attitudes towards feedback can be explained. The relationship between students' attitudes towards their own skills and competencies and their academic performance can be observed and studies can be carried out to improve performance. The findings of these and similar studies show that individuals' metacognitive awareness, self-efficacy perceptions of their knowledge, skills and competencies and their self-control over them are the keys to intellectual and academic development.

Are General Intelligence and Implicit Memory Related?: The Effect of Age

This study investigated the relationship between general intelligence and implicit memory performance in conjunction with aging. Data have been collected from 95 volunteers (49 young-46 older adults). General intelligence was measured by the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) test. Participants’ implicit memory performance was measured by the Word Stem Completion (WSC) task, in which the participants were presented with first three letters of a word and asked to complete this stem with the first word that comes to their mind. Explicit memory performance was also measured to be able to make a comparison with implicit memory performance and to document the differentiation between implicit and explicit memory. Although the same WSC task was used to measure implicit and explicit memory performance separately, the different instructions were used to deduce the different memory types. According to the results of factorial ANOVA, the main effect of age on general intelligence score was found to be statistically significant. After running further analyses by Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, results indicated that RSPM test total correct score had a tendency to decrease with increasing age and RSPM test completion time had a tendency to increase with aging. Results also showed that implicit WSC task score and RSPM test total correct score were positively correlated. Similarly, explicit WSC task score and RSPM test total correct score were positively correlated, too. However, RSPM test completion time did not differ depending on implicit and explicit memory performances which were measured by WSC task. The present study indicated the relation between implicit WSC task and general intelligence. Within this context, this study is important to draw attention to the contribution of implicit memory measurement which is in the shadow of traditional explicit memory measurements to general intelligence, especially in older population.

Better cognition, better school performance? Evidence from primary schools in China

Although students in rural and migrant schools in China generally have not performed well, a share of each cohort has been able to thrive in school and to test into academic high school and college. To understand the origins of persistence, specifically, why some students learn more than do others, researchers have identified certain sources of the problem. Few studies, however, have paid attention to the role that low levels of cognitive development of students play in their academic performance. To address this gap, this study focuses on the role that cognition may play in terms of the academic achievement of rural students. We analyze data from more than 10,000 primary school students from private migrant schools in Beijing and Suzhou and from public rural schools in Henan and Anhui, using the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices test. Our results show high rates of developmental delay (about 33% of the students have Ravens scores that are less than one standard deviation lower than an international mean). Further, the rates of delay are large among all subgroups in the study, including rural children who attend migrant schools in cities and those who live in rural areas and attend rural public schools. The results also suggest that the cognition of students is highly correlated with their educational performance and, in fact, is by far the most important factor in their academic achievement.

Fluid intelligence and school performance and its relationship with social variables in Latin American samples

As part of the project, “Study of the Latin-American Intelligence” (SLATINT), this study was conducted in six Latin American cities (Rosario-Argentina, Belo Horizonte-Brazil, Santiago-Chile, Bogota-Colombia, Mexico City-Mexico and Lima-Peru) and one European city (Madrid-Spain). The goal was to verify the effect of school performance on fluid intelligence and vice versa after controlling the socioeconomic variables. Students (N=3724) between the ages of 14 and 15years (51% females) that were enrolled in 66 schools from different socioeconomic levels, participated in this study. The Raven Standard Progressive Matrices test (SPM, fluid intelligence measure), the 2003 PISA test (school performance measure) and a short socioeconomic questionnaire were administered. Diverse multilevel analyses were conducted. The results were: 1) a positive relationship between PISA and SPM, although a stronger correlation was observed as aggregated (r=.89), rather than individual scores (r=.58) were used; 2) after controlling social variables, the PISA scores could vary up to 7.79 times due to variation in SPM scores; 3) after controlling social variables, the SPM scores could vary up to 1.4 due to variation in PISA scores; 4) the socioeconomic status of schools exerted a greater influence on PISA scores than on SPM scores; and 5) there was a variability among schools regarding school performance (35.2%) and intelligence (6.3%) which was not explained by the covariates and random effects. The impact of these results for education policies is discussed.

The Relationship between Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Raven Standard Progressive Matrices: A Latent Variable Analysis

Article History: Received 29.03.2015 Received in revised form 25.08.2015 Accepted 10.11.2015 Available online 20.12.2015 To investigate the relationship between the executive functions and the fluid intelligence, the relationship between two problem solving tests, namely the Wisconsin Cart Sorting Test (WCST, a widely accepted test of the executive functioning) and the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test (RSPMT, the most frequently used measure of the fluid intelligence) was analyzed by means of the relationship between the Structural Equation Models (SEM). 175 healthy university students participated in the study. RSPMT and WCST were used as data collection instruments. Significant correlations were obtained between the RSPMT`s total score, timing score and twelve different scores of WCST. Following the research hypotheses, the data obtained were analyzed by means of structural equation modeling. These findings further supported the relationship between the two tests. As a contribution to the literature, it was shown that besides updating and inhibition, set-formation is also significantly associated with fluid inteligence. The notion which proposes that the executive functions are the reflection of general intelligence and they represent the individual differences in the fluid intelligence performance has been supported with further scientific evidence. © 2016 IOJES. All rights reserved

Relationship between Cognitive Intelligence, Emotional Intelligence and Humor Styles

Humor includes cognitive and emotional experience. This study aimed to examine the relationships between cognitive intelligence, emotional intelligence, and humor styles. The sample of the study consisted of 319 undergraduate students. The humor styles questionnaire, The Revised Schutte Emotional Intelligence, and Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test Plus were used to obtain the data. The results indicated that emotional intelligence is positively correlated with adaptive humor styles. Cognitive intelligence had no statistically significant relationship with humor styles except affiliative humor style. Additionally, it was found that emotional intelligence predicted both affiliative and self-enhancing humor. The results were discussed in the light of the relationships between humor styles, emotional intelligence, and cognitive intelligence. © 2015 IOJES. All rights reserved

Dependent and paranoid personality patterns in myotonic dystrophy type 1

To analyze frequency and type of personality pattern in patients with myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1), to correlate these findings with clinical data, and to assess its possible influence on quality of life (QoL). This cross-sectional study comprised 62 patients with DM1. Following measures were used: Muscular Impairment Rating Scale, Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM), Millon Multiaxial Clinical Inventory I (MMCI), SF-36, and Individualized Neuromuscular Quality of Life (INQoL) questionnaires. The presence of at least one pathological personality trait with score above 85 on MMCI was found in 47 (75.8%) patients. After clinical interview, 36 (58.1%) subjects had significant personality impairment. The most common personality trait in our cohort of patients was dependent found in 51.6% of patients, followed by paranoid (38.7%). Higher score on dependent personality scale correlated with lower education (rho = -0.251, P = 0.049). Dependent personality scores significantly differed between patients with physical and intellectual work (93.1 ± 8.9 vs 66.9 ± 31.7, P = 0.011). Paranoid score was higher in patients with lower education (rho = -0.293, P = 0.021), lower score on RSPM test (rho = -0.398, P = 0.004) and larger number of CTG repeats (rho = 0.254, P = 0.046). Presence of dependent personality was not in association with QoL scores (P > 0.05). On the other hand, patients with paranoid personality trait had worse QoL than those without it (P < 0.05). Almost 60% of our patients with DM1 had clinically significant personality impairment, with dependent and paranoid personality patterns being the most common. Paranoid personality may decrease QoL in these patients, which gives us new opportunities for symptomatic therapy in DM1.

Gifted students’ readiness for college

Gifted students’ performance on a Chilean university admission test, Prueba de Selección Universitaria (PSU), was investigated in this study. Sixty-six students participating in an enrichment-based university program for gifted youth were selected. The sample included both male and female gifted adolescents who studied in public and voucher (charter) high schools. The purpose was to investigate which combination of factors was the best predictor of students’ scores and the differences between male and female students’ performance. Only intelligence, as measured by the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices test, correlated with the scores on the PSU. Males from voucher schools outperformed females on the PSU. Providing academic support and adequate preparation has been discussed as an important element for college readiness, successful transition to college, and to diminish the existing performance gap between students from different types of schools in Chile.

Measuring Intelligence by Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test: A PCA Approach

There are many ways to measure the intelligence, especially when it comes to measuring through multidimensional scaling. This study examines the nonverbal abilities of the individuals using nRaven Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) test. RSPM is a nonverbal culture fair test that identifies nonverbal reasoning abilities. It has 60 visually presented geometric-parallel-like problems based on five sets, having 12 items in each set. The tool was administered collectively (group-class) to a representative sample of 267 adolescents (both boys and girls) studying at higher education institutions in Pakistan. The sample was drawn from two public sector universities. The data was analyzed through descriptive statistics and principle component analysis (PCA) to extract nonverbal abilities. The results indicate that 25% participants have secured 60% or less tests scores, 50% participants have secured 73% or less tests scores, and 25% participants secured more than 81% tests scores. It is also found that participants have very sound intellectual capacity and nonverbal reasoning abilities which is generally identified as fluid intelligence and it is correlated with measures of abstract reasoning, puzzle solving, problem solving, learning and pattern recognition. Principle component analysis has revealed the grouping of the individuals and the common factor that affects the performance of the participants.

Studying the Equivalence of Computer-Delivered and Paper-Based Administrations of the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test

This study investigates the effect of mode of administration of the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices test on distribution, accuracy, and meaning of raw scores. A random sample of high school students take counterbalanced paper-and-pencil and computer-based administrations of the test and answer a questionnaire surveying preferences for computer-delivered test administrations. Administration mode effect is studied with repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance, internal consistency reliability estimates, and confirmatory factor analysis approaches. Results show a lack of test mode effect on distribution, accuracy, and meaning of raw scores. Participants indicate their preferences for the computer-delivered administration of the test. The article discusses findings in light of previous studies of the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices test.

General intelligence and short-term memory impairments in Post Traumatic Stress Disorder patients

Background: Studies of the relationship between short-term memory and intelligence in Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) patients are scarce.Aim: (1) To explore whether people with PTSD have equivalent levels of short-term, non-verbal memory on the Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), and whether they have equivalent levels of intelligence on the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM), (2) If memory deficit is evident in the PTSD group, is it related to intelligence on the RSPM compared to the control group?Method: BVRT and RSPM were used with 30 PTSD patients, and 20 controls.Results: There was no significant difference between the groups with respect to the RSPM. There was a significant difference between the groups with regard to the BVRT. In the PTSD group, there was a significant, negative, partial correlation between the BVRT sum of error scores from all forms, and the RSPM sum of correct scores from all sets. A regression model, controlled for co-linearity, was performed to assess the variables, which independently of each other would explain changes in the BVRT test performance in the PTSD group: Number of years of education, age, anxiety, and depression (from the General Health Questionnaire) were not significant, but RSPM test performance was correlated with BVRT test performance in the PTSD group.Conclusion: People with PTSD had worse short-term, non-verbal memory on the BVRT, despite having comparable levels of intelligence on the RSPM. This could suggest focal deficits related to impact of trauma/PTSD on hippocampal function or a more general dysfunction. Memory deficits on the BVRT were related to intelligence on the RSPM for the PTSD group but not the control group. This could mean gross impairments in memory influence intelligence assessments in these patients.

Neurobehavioral and cognitive performances of children exposed to low-dose radiation in the Chernobyl accident: the Israeli Chernobyl Health Effects Study.

Exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation after the Chernobyl accident in the Ukraine could potentially have influenced the neurobehavioral and cognitive performances of exposed children. A cohort study of adolescents who were children at the time of the accident and who subsequently emigrated to Israel was conducted in 1998-2001. A total of 1,629 children (59% of all 2,769 invited) were included in the study (41% from higher contamination areas, 25% from lower contamination areas, 34% from noncontaminated areas). Mean scores of the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test were highest in children in all exposure groups whose parents had a high level of education. No overall relation was found between the cognitive function scores of the child and his/her putative radiation exposure level. Conners' test T scores did not differ significantly by level of exposure. Mothers of all exposure groups who were pregnant at the time of the accident gave their children significantly higher Conners' test scores than did those who were not pregnant. Scores for hyperactivity and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder were significantly higher among those who were in utero at the time of the accident. These results do not show differences of neurobehavioral or cognitive performance in exposed versus nonexposed children. There is a possible behavioral effect among offspring of pregnant mothers or mothers of very young children in all exposure levels.

The suitability of Raven's standard progressive matrices for various groups in South Africa

This article examines the suitability of the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test (SPM) for groups of white, coloured, Indian and black pupils in Standard 7 in South Africa. The four groups show very little difference in test reliabilities, the rank order of item difficulties, item discrimination values, and the loadings of items on the first principal component. Consequently, from a psychometric point of view, the SPM is not culturally biased. However, the test is not culture or ethnic ‘blind’ either. This is revealed by discriminant analysis which shows that the largest proportion of the black and white testees follow the general pattern of their own group. (This tendency is far less evident in the coloured and Indian groups.) The groups also show large mean test score differences, especially between black and white pupils where the differences is nearly 3 SD units. Regarding the nature of these differences, it was found that items which discriminate best within the groups were also the items that showed the largest differences between the groups. It was concluded that, despite the similar properties of the SPM for the various groups, the test is nevertheless unsuitable—on account of the large mean differences—for use as a common test with common norms for black and white pupils in Std 7. In a multicultural society like South Africa, this finding poses serious problems for psychologists who are concerned with the establishment of common tests for all.

Performance of Tanzanian secondary school pupils on the Raven standard progressive matrices test.

(1967). Performance of Tanzanian Secondary School Pupils on the Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test. The Journal of Social Psychology: Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 205-215.