Rates Of Soil Movement Research Articles

Patterns and rates of soil movement and shallow failures across several small watersheds on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska

Abstract. Thawing permafrost can alter topography, ecosystems, and sediment and carbon fluxes, but predicting landscape evolution of permafrost-influenced watersheds in response to warming and/or hydrological changes remains an unsolved challenge. Sediment flux and slope instability in sloping saturated soils have been commonly predicted from topographic metrics (e.g., slope, drainage area). In addition to topographic factors, cohesion imparted by soil and vegetation and melting ground ice may also control spatial trends in slope stability, but the distribution of ground ice is poorly constrained and hard to predict. To address whether slope stability and surface displacements follow topographic-based predictions, we document recent drivers of permafrost sediment flux present on a landscape in western Alaska that include creep, solifluction, gullying, and catastrophic hillslope failures ranging in size from a few meters to tens of meters, and we find evidence of rapid and substantial landscape change on an annual timescale. We quantify the timing and rate of surface movements using a multi-pronged, multi-scalar dataset including aerial surveys, interannual GPS surveys, synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR), and climate data. Despite clear visual evidence of downslope soil transport of solifluction lobes, we find that the interannual downslope surface displacement of these features does not outpace downslope displacement of soil in locations where lobes are absent (downslope movement means: 7 cm yr−1 for lobes over 2 years vs. 10 cm yr−1 in landscape positions without lobes over 1 year). Annual displacements do not appear related to slope, drainage area, or modeled total solar radiation but are likely related to soil thickness, and volumetric sediment fluxes are high compared to temperate landscapes of comparable bedrock lithology. Time series of InSAR displacements show accelerated movement in late summer, associated with intense rainfall and/or deep thaw. While mapped slope failures do cluster at slope–area thresholds, a simple slope stability model driven with hydraulic conductivities representative of throughflow in mineral and organic soil drastically overpredicts the occurrence of slope failures. This mismatch implies permafrost hillslopes have unaccounted-for cohesion and/or throughflow pathways, perhaps modulated by vegetation, which stabilize slopes against high rainfall. Our results highlight the breadth and complexity of soil transport processes in Arctic landscapes and demonstrate the utility of using a range of synergistic data collection methods to observe multiple scales of landscape change, which can aid in predicting periglacial landscape evolution.

Geophysical Characterization of the Keene Valley Landslide in New York State

The largest naturally occurring landslide in New York State history began in early May 2011. Melting of winter snowpack followed by abnormally high volumes of April rain saturated the underlying glacial stratigraphy and initiated the 0.33 km2(82 acre) landslide on Little Porter Mountain in the High-Peaks region of the Adirondack Mountains. Downslope soil movement rates between 15 and 60 cm per day demonstrated their destructive capacity as the shifting soils caused one house to be condemned because of the unstable ground and foundation while simultaneously rendering three other houses into immediate danger. The mechanisms controlling this landslide were investigated using geophysical methods, displacement measurements, and borehole logs. Nineteen electrical resistivity imaging surveys were implemented to map the subsurface glacial features. Ground penetration radar (GPR) profiles were collected along many of the resistivity lines and additional reconnaissance lines in several other locations. These surveys identified subsurface features such as the buried bedrock surface, thick sequences of loose zones of saturated sediments and clays within the glacial till, and boulder zones. The geophysical data were compared with displacement station measurements and precipitation records, which led to the interpretation that the landslide was triggered by large infiltration and the failure surface was along a clay-sand interface. The nature of the slide is revealed as a deep-seated rotational surface within the glacial deposits instead of the bedrock debris avalanche failures that are considered typical of the Adirondack region. The results of this study assist in the Little Porter Mountain landslide characterization and hazard potential classification of similar glacial deposits on slopes in the Adirondacks region.

Combining Time-Lapse Photography and Multisensor Monitoring to Understand Frost Creep Dynamics in the Japanese Alps

Automated monitoring that combines time-lapse photography and sensor-based data logging can elucidate the environmental conditions, processes and rates of soil movement on remote periglacial hillslopes. This study presents the results from 5 years of time-lapse photography of soil movements, supported by time series data on frost heave, soil temperature, soil moisture and surface weather, on an alpine stone-banked lobe subject to frequent diurnal freeze-thaw cycles and deep seasonal frost on Mt Ainodake in the Japanese Alps. The lobe is dominated by biannual shallow soil movements, mostly originating from diurnal frost heave by needle ice or shallow ice lens formation and approximated by potential frost creep. The surface velocity shows a small interannual variation mainly reflecting snow conditions that control the spatio-temporal variability of freeze-thaw action, while it is independent of mean annual air temperature that influences the intensity of seasonal freezing. Occasional rill erosion occurs when the topmost frozen soil is rapidly thawed and super-saturated by intensive rainfall during seasonal thawing periods. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Estimates of soil movement in a study area in Gonghe Basin, north-east of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Accurate data on soil erosion rates by wind and patterns of soil movement are essential for guiding control planning in Gonghe Basin, north-east of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. This study was conducted to estimate soil erosion rates and assess patterns of soil movement by wind erosion in a 600 ha area during a 37-year period using the 137Cs tracer technique. Two hundred and fifty-five soil samples were collected from 125 137Cs sampling points on a modified grid pattern and analysed for 137Cs activity. Using ordinary point kriging, soil movement rates were interpolated at 7350 points in the sample grid. The kriged mean net soil movement rates were −3·496, −5·026 and 1·77 kg m −2 year −1 on uncultivated grassland, cultivated grassland (farmland) and semi-shifting sand land, respectively. Soil movement by wind erosion in semi-arid steppe area is closely related to land use and soil landscape.

Geomorphic processes at a snowpatch hollow on Gassan volcano, northern Japan

AbstractPresent‐day geomorphic processes, in a snowpatch hollow on an andesitic volcano (Gassan, 1984 m ASL; 38° 38′ N, 140° 02′ E) where late‐lying snow survives nearly 10 months every year, have been measured for several years. Although soil temperature data show a concentration of freeze‐thaw activities in autumn, these fluctuations rarely drop to the effective temperature range for frost shattering. Wetting and drying rather than frost action is thought responsible for debris production which ranges from 2.12 to 49.68 g m−2 a−1, equivalent to a rock surface retreat of 0.001 to 0.019 mm a−1. Thawing of seasonal frost and saturation of soils induces frost creep and gelifluction: maximum values of surface velocity and depth of soil movement are 0.9 cm a−1 and 14 cm, respectively. Annually, slope lowering of 0.3 cm occurs in the pro‐nival and sub‐nival wash‐rill zones. In comparison with other snowpatch sites in the world, rates of soil movement and rock surface denudation are considerably lower at the study site, while fluvial action seems important. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Geoindicators for river and river-valley monitoring in the humid tropics

Geoindicators for rivers and river valleys in the humid tropics are suggested to indicate environmental change during periods of up to a century. Geoindicators suggested for upland areas of supply are rainfall-runoff relations, rates of soil movement and slope failure, and analyses of drainage density. Data applicable to sediment storage in lowlands are rates of sediment deposition as shown by monuments, short-lived radioisotopes, and pollen. Discharges of water, sediment, and dissolved solids are basic geoindicators for large streams, especially when analyses include flood frequency, stage-discharge relations, flow duration, sediment-rating curves, and comparisons of dissolved loads to sediment loads. The utility of geoindicators in the humid tropics may be greatest if observation sites are selected with a network design to permit comparisons of sites with similar conditions of climate and drainage-basin characteristics.

Evaluating Soil Movement Using Cesium‐137 and the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation

AbstractMore complete information is needed on the rates and patterns of soil movement in Palouse watersheds to better guide conservation planning. Water erosion has historically been predicted from rates using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) or the Revised USLE (RUSLE). These equations, however, do not account for deposition or tillage erosion. This study was conducted to assess patterns of soil movement in an open Palouse watershed during a 27‐yr period using the 137Cs tracer technique and to statistically compare transect‐ and point‐based RUSLE soil loss rates with 137Cs‐based soil loss rates measured at 74 137Cs sampling points located on 89 landscape profiles. One hundred fifty‐eight soil samples were collected from a modified grid pattern and analyzed for 137Cs activity. Soil movement rates were interpolated at 8025 points in the sample grid using ordinary point kriging. Hillslopes were classified into geometric and geomorphic components. The kriged mean net soil movement rate for the 27‐yr period was −3.3 kg m−2 yr−1. Doubly convex landscape positions have experienced the most severe erosion, apparently due to tillage erosion. The measured 137Cs and transect‐based RUSLE median soil loss rates were both significantly higher than the point‐based RUSLE median; however, no significant difference existed between the transect‐based RUSLE and measured 137Cs median soil loss rates (α = 0.05). Meaningful comparisons between 137Cs and RUSLE soil loss rates can only be made if a tillage movement rate, history of crop management, and the accuracy of RUSLE relationships and operating files are known.

Turf-Banked Terraces in Oraefi, Southeast Iceland: Morphometry, Rates of Movement, and Environmental Controls

Small-scale turf-banked terraces are widely developed on low- angled slopes above the Neoglacial trimlines of the Oraefi outlet glaciers in southeast Iceland. These features, which have not been previously described in this area, comprise a vegetated riser and a vegetation-free tread. The morphometry of these landforms is shown to be related to slope angle. Rates of soil movement were measured over a 2-yr period using Rudberg pillars and showed maximum displacement of the surface layer of 11 mm yr-1. The environmental controls on the development of the turf-banked terraces are discussed including aspect, slope angle and altitude.

Run-Off and Soil Movement on Mid-Slopes in North-East Queensland [Australia] Grazed Woodlands.

Run-off, bedload and sediment concentration data were collected over a five-year period from unbounded catchments in grazed and exclosed pastures in woodlands. Cover varied from 4% during drought conditions to almost 100% in exclosed areas after above-average rainfall. High bedload soil loss, sediment concentration and run-off percentages were associated with low cover (<30%). Run-off as a percentage of rainfall increased linearly with rainfall intensity; decreased linearly with cover; decreased slightly as soil moisture status declined; and reached a maximum at intermediate rainfall events. Interactions between these factors were observed. Run-off was up to 30% of rainfall in moderate rainfall events (30-40 mm) where maximum rainfall intensity over any 15 minute period (I15) exceeded 70 mm/h. When soil moisture status was high, mean run-off exceeded 30% for 40-80 mm rainfall events. For all rainfall event sizes, run-off exceeded 20% where I15 exceeded 60 mm/h. Cover had very little effect on run-off when rainfall intensity was low (I15<20 mm/h), soil water deficit was low (<10 mm) or when rainfall events were >75 mm or <10 mm. Bedload plus suspended sediment loads ranged from negligible to 1000 kg/ha/a, depending principally on cover. Soil movement from areas with >40-50% cover was very low. Pastures dominated by Bothriochloa pertusa (a stoloniferous, naturalised grass) had lower run-off and lower rates of soil movement than pastures dominated by Heteropogon contortus (a native tussocky perennial grass) when compared at the same level of cover. Differences between grazed and exclosed areas could be attributed solely to differences in cover.

Spatial redistribution of Cs-137 and soil erosion on Orléans Island, Québec

Cs-137 redistribution data have been used to estimate the extent and the pattern of long-term soil erosion in the Québec City area. Mean annual net soil movements ranging from a deposition of 10.8 t ha−1 yr−1 to a loss of 31.8 t ha−1 yr−1 were estimated. The slope steepness and the land use significantly influenced the estimated rates of soil movement, while soil texture was less important, probably because of the soils’ sandy texture or the high content of organic carbon, which kept their erodibility low. The net soil losses estimated from Cs-137 data were consistently higher than those predicted by the USLE. Besides net soil losses, it was possible to estimate separately the magnitude of soil detachment and soil deposition. Two–thirds of the stations sampled experienced net soil loss while the remaining third showed evidence of soil accumulation. These data suggest that the small net soil losses measured for low erosive conditions (flat slopes, dairy farming) result from important soil redeposition rates as much as from small soil detachment rates. Cs-137 redistribution data not only produce reliable estimates of soil movement rates, but also allow enhanced estimates of the agronomic and environmental impacts of soil erosion.Key words: Cs-137, erosion, sedimentation, USLE, sediment delivery ratio

Quantifying tillage erosion rates due to moldboard plowing

Tillage erosion, the movement of soil downslope by mechanical implements, has been recognized as a problem, but primarily in a qualitative manner. This study was initiated to quantify soil movement by tillage on a hillslope landscape by computer simulation of long-term moldboard plowing. Regression equations describing soil movement as affected by slope gradient were developed from a hillslope at the University of Minnesota Southwest Experiment Station where individual plots could be located on the frontslope, apex, and backslope. Based on these equations, yearly soil movement calculations were made for a moldboard plowing operation over two hillslope landscapes. The first landscape was generated to give concave, linear, and convex slope gradients. The second landscape was a measured line segment from the experimental site. From a starting elevation and slope, one-dimensional calculations were based on forward moment of soil blocks, 0.24 m (plow depth)× 0.46 m (plow share width) × 1.5 m (increment length), over the hillslope to simulate 1 year's moldboard plowing. Elevation and slope of each soil block position was recalculated, and forward movement was then calculated in the opposite direction to simulate the next year's plowing. This process was continued to simulate 100 years of moldboard plowing at opposing direction during alternate years. Results from this analysis showed that a net loss in soil will occur on convex slope positions (tillage erosion), soil accumulation will occur in concave slope positions, and little change occurs in linear slope positions regardless of slope gradient. Calculated average annual net soil movement rates away from convex slope position were up to 30 t ha −1 year −1 and could easily account for the presence of observed lighter colored soil in convex slope positions on many landscapes. The magnitude of net soil movement calculated strongly suggests that soil movement by tillage is a serious problem.

Subsurface Movement on Solifluction Slopes in the Ruby Range, Yukon Territory, Canada: A 20-Year Study

A 20-yr investigation of soil movement rates on four slopes in the Ruby Range, Yukon Territory, has revealed greater differential movement at depth than at the surface under certain conditions. This type of movement, found primarily on a southeast-facing slope with welldeveloped solifluction lobes and complete vegetation cover, typically produces profiles that are convex-concave downslope rather than simply concave downslope as commonly reported in the literature. The movement profiles comprise three sections: (1) top 20 cm where greatest total movement occurs but there is little differential movement; (2) depth of 20 to 50 cm where greatest differential movement occurs; and (3) depths below 50 cm where little movement takes place. Rates of surface movement over the 20-yr period range from 0.53 to 2.05 cm yr-~ and total volumetric displacements range from 18.9 to 67.3 cm3 yr-'. Movement occurs in early summer by soil flowing between the turf mat and frozen ground as well as possibly by en masse movement of the entire surface through discrete shearing at a depth of 30 to 50 cm.

Periglacial evidence from the western Cape Mountains, South Africa: A progress report

AbstractExtensive Pleistocene debris deposits occur in the Western Cape Mountains, South Africa. Although a cryogenic origin for the clasts is generally accepted, there is still discussion about the conditions under which debris transport and deposition took place. In the Waaihoek Mountains solifluction features occur at 1800m a.s.l. Present‐day periglacial activity results from surficial soil frost action and snowfalls in the cold season. To assess the significance of freeze‐thaw action on soil movement rates, continuous and periodic measurements are being made of climatic parameters and soil movement at several experimental sites, including a snowpatch site, at 1850m a.s.l. in the Waaihoek Mountains.

Erosion processes and rates for gullies in granitic soils bathurst, new south wales, australia

AbstractSoil movement rates from fluted gully sides in New South Wales were measured over three years by erosion pins and survey. Erosion rates varied considerably over short distances from 0 to 53 mm yr−1 with an average removal rate of 19‐8 mm yr−1.

Slow Movement of Earth under Tropical Rain Forest Conditions

Measurements of soil creep in El Yunque National Forest, Puerto Rico, indicate that the average rates of soil movement are greater than rates in other forested areas and generally are greater than in other locales. Also, the velocity distribution indicates two zones of maximum movement. This phenomenon is not explained by normal creep behavior. For the wet tropics, theory must include the roles of throughflow and the distribution, of plant roots, as well as the interaction between gravity and the individual expansion and contraction of soil particles.

Some Factors Affecting the Rates and Processes of Periglacial Mass Movements

An east-facing slope in the Okstindan Mountains of northern Norway was selected for a detailed study of the rates and processes of soil movement in a periglacial environment. Rates of soil movement...

Some Factors Affecting the Rates and Processes of Periglacial Mass Movements

An east-facing slope in the Okstindan Mountains of northern Norway was selected for a detailed study of the rates and processes of soil movement in a periglacial environment. Rates of soil movement of between 0 cm and 6.0 cm were recorded in the year 1969–70 and movements of between 0 cm and 5.1 cm in the year 1970–71. It was shown that the main factors affecting these rates of movement were soil moisture content, gradient, vegetation cover, and winter frost heave. Soil movement in this area took place by saturated flow and soil creep.

Downslope Soil Movement in a Colorado Alpine Region: Rates, Processes, and Climatic Significance

Soil-movement rates, processes, and land-forms were studied above timberline on the east slope of the Colorado Front Range. Maximum rates of downslope movement measured in sorted stripes, turf-banked lobes and terraces, and stone-banked lobes and terraces at nine experimental sites on Niwot Range ranged from 0.4 to 4.3 cm/yr. Rates of displacement were strongly influenced by differences in moisture availability and gradient, but were relatively unaffected by differences in soil texture and temperature. Movement is currently confined to the upper 50 cm of soil; columns of small cement rods placed in vertical drillholes showed no downslope displacement below this depth after four years of burial.Periodic measurements of downslope movement and frost heaving during the 1965-66 annual freeze-thaw cycle suggest that solifluction is a more effective process than frost creep in the saturated axial areas of turf-banked lobes in wet sites, but is less effective than frost creep at their edges. Potential frost creep at one experimental site exceeded theoretical values calculated from heave and slope measurements. Retrograde movement was larger than anticipated. At a site where frost creep is the dominant movement process, stone-banked lobes moved three times as rapidly as the finer-textured soil between them; at a site where shallow solifluction is important, stripes of coarse debris moved only half as rapidly as stripes of fine material.Turf-banked lobes and terraces are the result of intense solifluction beneath a cover of vegetation; they form where downslope movement is impeded, and are normally associated with a decrease in gradient such as occurs on concave lower slopes. The shape of the front (linear or lobate) is determined by the uniformity of moisture distribution parallel to the contour of the slope. At least two generations of turf-banked lobes and terraces occur in the Niwot Ridge area. Terraces with gentle, subdued fronts and patterned treads date from the late Pleistocene, and were used as camping and butchering areas by prehistoric man as long ago as 7,650 ± 190 radiocarbon years. Most bear an Altithermal soil: five dates for the soil range from 5,800 ± 125 to 5,300 ± 130 BP. Lobes and terraces with overhanging fronts and unpatterned treads postdate the Altithermal interval: radiocarbon and stratigraphic evidence suggest that they formed late in the Temple Lake Stade of Neoglaciation. The front of one small Neoglacial turf-banked lobe has advanced at an average rate of 0.19 cm/yr during the past 2,340 ± 130 radiocarbon years.Stone-banked lobes and terraces are caused by frost creep and are favored by an absence of vegetation; they commonly develop where moving sorted stripes or blockfields encounter a decrease in gradient. Sorting is partially inherited, but is accentuated as the lobe or terrace moves downslope. Stone-banked lobes and terraces in the Niwot Ridge area developed late in the Temple Lake Stade of Neoglaciation. A series of radiocarbon dates from the buried A horizon in one stone-banked terrace suggests that its front has advanced at an average rate of 0.34 cm/yr during the past 2,470 ± 110 radiocarbon years. Movement was slow during the Temple Lake-Arikaree* interstade (2,650 to 1,850 BP), a time of soil formation and intense cavernous weathering, and during the Arikaree glacial maximum, when lichen measurements show that the slope was covered with an insulating blanket of perennial snow. Disappearance of the snowbank led to an eight-fold increase in the rate of terrace advance between about 1,150 and 1,050 BP.The widespread occurrence of stone-banked lobes and terraces, sorted polygons, and sorted stripes on the treads of turf-banked lobes and terraces suggests a general decline in the availability of moisture and the effectiveness of solifluction since the end of the Middle Stade of Pinedale (Late Wisconsin) Glaciation. During the latest Pinedale and earliest Neoglacial ice advances frost creep replaced solifluction as the dominant movement process on many slopes. Neither process is particularly effective today, except in specialized microenvironments that are saturated with meltwater in the autumn.

Downslope Soil Movement in a Colorado Alpine Region: Rates, Processes, and Climatic Significance

Soil-movement rates, processes, and land-forms were studied above timberline on the east slope of the Colorado Front Range. Maximum rates of downslope movement measured in sorted stripes, turf-banked lobes and terraces, and stone-banked lobes and terraces at nine experimental sites on Niwot Range ranged from 0.4 to 4.3 cm/yr. Rates of displacement were strongly influenced by differences in moisture availability and gradient, but were relatively unaffected by differences in soil texture and temperature. Movement is currently confined to the upper 50 cm of soil; columns of small cement rods placed in vertical drillholes showed no downslope displacement below this depth after four years of burial.Periodic measurements of downslope movement and frost heaving during the 1965-66 annual freeze-thaw cycle suggest that solifluction is a more effective process than frost creep in the saturated axial areas of turf-banked lobes in wet sites, but is less effective than frost creep at their edges. Potential frost creep at one experimental site exceeded theoretical values calculated from heave and slope measurements. Retrograde movement was larger than anticipated. At a site where frost creep is the dominant movement process, stone-banked lobes moved three times as rapidly as the finer-textured soil between them; at a site where shallow solifluction is important, stripes of coarse debris moved only half as rapidly as stripes of fine material.Turf-banked lobes and terraces are the result of intense solifluction beneath a cover of vegetation; they form where downslope movement is impeded, and are normally associated with a decrease in gradient such as occurs on concave lower slopes. The shape of the front (linear or lobate) is determined by the uniformity of moisture distribution parallel to the contour of the slope. At least two generations of turf-banked lobes and terraces occur in the Niwot Ridge area. Terraces with gentle, subdued fronts and patterned treads date from the late Pleistocene, and were used as camping and butchering areas by prehistoric man as long ago as 7,650 ± 190 radiocarbon years. Most bear an Altithermal soil: five dates for the soil range from 5,800 ± 125 to 5,300 ± 130 BP. Lobes and terraces with overhanging fronts and unpatterned treads postdate the Altithermal interval: radiocarbon and stratigraphic evidence suggest that they formed late in the Temple Lake Stade of Neoglaciation. The front of one small Neoglacial turf-banked lobe has advanced at an average rate of 0.19 cm/yr during the past 2,340 ± 130 radiocarbon years.Stone-banked lobes and terraces are caused by frost creep and are favored by an absence of vegetation; they commonly develop where moving sorted stripes or blockfields encounter a decrease in gradient. Sorting is partially inherited, but is accentuated as the lobe or terrace moves downslope. Stone-banked lobes and terraces in the Niwot Ridge area developed late in the Temple Lake Stade of Neoglaciation. A series of radiocarbon dates from the buried A horizon in one stone-banked terrace suggests that its front has advanced at an average rate of 0.34 cm/yr during the past 2,470 ± 110 radiocarbon years. Movement was slow during the Temple Lake-Arikaree* interstade (2,650 to 1,850 BP), a time of soil formation and intense cavernous weathering, and during the Arikaree glacial maximum, when lichen measurements show that the slope was covered with an insulating blanket of perennial snow. Disappearance of the snowbank led to an eight-fold increase in the rate of terrace advance between about 1,150 and 1,050 BP.The widespread occurrence of stone-banked lobes and terraces, sorted polygons, and sorted stripes on the treads of turf-banked lobes and terraces suggests a general decline in the availability of moisture and the effectiveness of solifluction since the end of the Middle Stade of Pinedale (Late Wisconsin) Glaciation. During the latest Pinedale and earliest Neoglacial ice advances frost creep replaced solifluction as the dominant movement process on many slopes. Neither process is particularly effective today, except in specialized microenvironments that are saturated with meltwater in the autumn.