Rates Of Co-residence Research Articles

Parental co-residence and young adults' mental health.

The growing trend towards young adults staying in the parental home has garnered much recent scholarly interest. However, less is known about which young adults are living at home, and the impacts this has over young adults' lives. Using The Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) dataset, this study examines the profiles of co-residing young adults and how these have changed over the first two decades of the 21st century. It then analyses the associations between co-residence and young adults' mental health, applying a propensity score modelling approach to determine differences in mental health between young adults living at home and their counterparts living independently. Results indicate that rates of co-residence have increased over the 2000s, most steeply amongst those residing outside of major cities (by 46%), older adults (by 36%), females (by 28%), and low-income groups (by 10%). Findings show a significant negative association between co-residence and mental health (a 4-point difference on the 100-point scale, 95% CI -5.93, -2.14). However, the greatest differential in mental health between co-resident and independent young adults is observed amongst those for whom rates of co-residence have increased most dramatically, i.e., females and older adults (a 6-point difference in mental health) and residents of regional and rural areas (a 5-point difference in mental health). We situate this discussion in the context of intensifying housing market constraints, considering how the transformation of the Australian housing system into a vehicle for wealth accumulation has generated barriers to residential independence.

Household transitions between ages 5 and 15 and educational outcomes: Fathers and grandparents in Peru.

Latin America has high rates of single motherhood and intergenerational coresidence, resulting in children experiencing changes in household composition - particularly with respect to fathers and grandparents. In other contexts, such changes have been shown to influence educational outcomes. To test if the presence of grandparents and fathers in the household are differentially associated with educational outcomes during schooling years in Peru. Young Lives longitudinal data consist of around 2,000 children who were followed from age 1 to age 15 between 2002 and 2017. Using value-added and child fixed effects models, I examine if the number of changes in household structure involving fathers and grandparents, the type of change (exit or entrance), and the identity of the household members are associated with cognitive outcomes. Persistence was tested as well as heterogeneous associations by child's age at transition and disadvantage. More than half the children experienced a change in household composition between ages 5 and 15. Father separation was associated with worse cognitive scores and lower likelihood of being on-grade. This was strongest if separation occurred when children were older. Grandparent presence in the household was not as strongly correlated with child outcomes, but results suggest that children have better cognitive performance after grandparent separation from the household. Associations between household composition and child outcomes were stronger if children were disadvantaged. This research provides evidence that fathers and grandparents are both important contributors to child educational outcomes in a context where three-generational households are common.

The Historical Origins of Son Preference: Patrilocality and Missing Women

This study examines the historical origins of son preference. I test a hypothesis that son preference emerges from humanity’s adoption of intensive agriculture for subsistence. This increases the incentive to adopt patrilocal residence norms after marriage, and for sons to care for their parents during old age. Consistent with this hypothesis, I present evidence that the descendants of societies which engaged in intensive agriculture have higher rates of coresidence with sons and higher sex ratios at birth today. This is found when looking across countries, within countries across regions, and within regions across ethnic groups. The results highlight the connection between historical subsistence patterns and modern demographic outcomes.

Elderly Coresidence and Son Preference: Can Pension Reforms Solve the ‘Missing Women’ Problem?

In this paper, I examine the relationship between patrilocal norms that dictate elderly coresidence between parents and sons, and the sex ratio at birth. I argue that concerns over old age support are critical in explaining excess mortality among daughters. First, I demonstrate that sex ratios and coresidence rates are positively correlated when looking across countries, within countries across districts, and within districts across ethnic groups. Second, in a series of case studies where I exploit natural experiments, I find that sex ratios decline in response to expansions in the availability of pensions but increase when pensions become less reliable.

Family Spillovers and Long-Term Care Insurance

We examine how the presence of long-term care insurance (LTCI) spills over to family outcomes, including informal care, co-residence, and labor supply of adult children. We instrument for long-term care insurance with changes in state tax policies to address the endogeneity of LTCI coverage. We find that for tax-filing families in the top third of the income distribution, LTCI coverage leads to a 50 percent reduction the parents’ perceptions of the willingness of people to care for them in the future, including their adult children. We also find that LTCI causes changes in the residential decisions of adult children, with lower co-residence rates and higher likelihood of living within 10 miles of the parent. We also find small decreases in part-time work among adult children. Our findings provide empirical support for the presence of family spillovers of LTCI on the economic behaviors of family members. Part of a symposium sponsored by the Economics of Aging Interest Group.

Disparities in COVID-19 mortality by county racial composition and the role of spring social distancing measures

Available COVID-19 data shows higher shares of cases and deaths occur among Black Americans, but reporting of data by race is poor. This paper investigates disparities in county-level mortality rates across counties with higher and lower than national average Black population shares using nonlinear regression decomposition and estimates potential differential impact of social distancing measures. I find counties with Black population shares above the national share have mortality rates 2 to 3 times higher than in other counties. Observable differences in living conditions, health, and work characteristics reduce the disparity to approximately 1.25 to 1.65 overall, and explain 100% of the disparity at 21 days after the first case. Though higher rates of comorbidities in counties with higher Black population shares are an important predictor, living situation factors like single parenthood and population density are just as important. Higher rates of co-residence with grandchildren explain 11% of the 21 day disparity but do not appear important by 42 days, suggesting families may have been better able to protect vulnerable family members later in the epidemic. To analyze differential effects of social distancing measures use two approaches. First, I exploit the timing of interventions relative to the first case among counties that began their epidemic at the same time. Second, I use event study analysis to analyze within-county changes in mortality. Findings for social distancing measures are not always consistent across approaches. Overall, I find no evidence that school closures were less effective in counties with larger Black population shares, and some estimates suggest closures may have disproportionately helped more diverse counties and counties with high rates of grandparent and grandchild co-residence. Conversely, stay at home orders are less clearly associated with mortality in any counties, reaching peak unemployment did not reduce mortality in any models, and some estimates indicate reaching peak unemployment before the first case was associated with higher mortality rates, especially in more diverse counties.

The road ahead: should Hong Kong develop five pillars of old age protection?

PurposeThis paper demonstrates that Hong Kong currently provides four pillars of old-age protection: a publicly managed and noncontributory social security system (zero pillar), a funded contribution scheme (the second pillar), voluntary personal savings (the third pillar) and informal support, formal social programs and other individual financial assets (the fourth pillar). This paper aims at evaluating current four pillars of old-age protection and unraveling the deep-seated causes underlying the current old-age protection model by tracing a short history from 1965 onward. This paper aims at making recommendations about the current old-age protection model.Design/methodology/approachThe paper analyzes the current four pillars of old age protection. A comprehensive literature review was conducted covering relevant government reports, academics' journal papers and nongovernmental organizations' reports concerning the development of old age protection system from 1965 to the present.FindingsThe poverty rate of elderly residents was approximately 44.5% between 2009 and 2018, indicating that the four pillars of old-age protection had been unable to alleviate poverty in the aging population. The development of the current four pillars is attributed to a residual welfare system, the effectiveness of which is further dependent on familial dependence or welfare financialization. However, the reliability of familial dependence is affected by the declining coresidence rate and low fertility rate, whereas welfare financialization not only predominately favors financial institutions but also exacerbates income polarization. Therefore, the University of Hong Kong (2014) introduced an additional pillar of noncontributory social pension and assistance, which generated a contentious debate. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) government initiated a public engagement exercise on retirement protection in 2015 to assess public opinion on old-age protection. These consultation exercises were met with broad public disappointment because of the explicit reservations imposed by the government on the proposals.Practical implicationsAlthough the government's resistant attitude can be attributed to the residual welfare system, pension reform needs to be urgently implemented at three levels, namely strengthening of each pillar, emphasis on the pillar's interrelatedness and introduction of the first pillar.Originality/valueThe poverty of the elderly population is serious in Hong Kong. It is important to solve the deep-seated problems faced by the current old-age protection model. Hence, it comes a critical time to design a sustainable old-age protection model despite the heated discussion on the establishment of a central provident fund and pension system among officials since 1960s.

Intergenerational residence patterns and Covid-19 fatalities in the EU and the US*

We study how patterns of intergenerational residence possibly influence fatalities from Covid-19. We use aggregate data on Covid-19 deaths, the share of young adults living with their parents, and a number of other statistics, for 29 European countries associated with the European Union and all US states. Controlling for population size, we find that more people died from Covid in countries or states with higher rates of intergenerational co-residence. This positive correlation persists even when controlling for date of first death, presence of lockdown, Covid tests per capita, hospital beds per capita, proportion of elderly, GDP per capita, government’s political orientation, percentage urban, and rental prices. The positive association between co-residence and fatalities is led by the US.

A Decade of Research on Intergenerational Ties: Technological, Economic, Political, and Demographic Changes.

Due to extended transitions to adulthood and declining marital rates, bonds between adults and parents have grown increasingly salient in individuals' lives. This review organizes research around these topics to address ties between parents and grown children in the context of broader societal changes over the past decade. Literature searches included tables of contents of premier journals (e.g., Journal of Marriage and Family), Psychological Info, and Google Scholar. The literature review revealed patterns of social and intergenerational changes. Technological advances (e.g., introduction of the smart phone) co-occurred with more frequent contact and interdependence between generations. The Great Recession and financial strains altered the nature of many parent/child ties, including increased rates of intergenerational coresidence. Individual life problems such as divorce, addiction, and physical health problems were reflected in complex changes in positive and negative relationship qualities, ambivalence, and intergenerational support. Government policies reflect societal values and in turn, affected the distribution of parents' and grown children's resources. Political disruptions instigated migration, separating generations across large geographic regions. Political disruptions instigated migration, separating generations across large geographic regions. Demographic changes (e.g., constellation of family members, delayed marriage, same sex marriage) were also manifest in ties between adults and parents. Findings were consistent with the Intergenerational Systems in Context Model, which posits that societal transformations co-occur with changes in intergenerational relationships via reciprocal influences.

Intergenerational Residence Patterns and Covid-19 Fatalities in the EU and the Us

We study how patterns of intergenerational residence possibly influence fatalities from Covid-19. We use aggregate data on Covid-19 deaths, the share of young adults living with their parents, and a number of other statistics, for the 27 countries in the European Union, the UK, and all US states. Controlling for population size, we find that more people died from Covid in countries or states with higher rates of intergenerational co-residence. This positive correlation persists even when controlling for date of first death, presence of lockdown, Covid tests pc, hospital beds per capita, proportion of elderly, GDP pc, government's political orientation, percentage urban, and rental prices. The positive association between co-residence and fatalities is led by the US. Our estimates pass the Oster test for selection on unobservables.

AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF MARITAL STATUS IN JAPAN

This study analyzed the interdependent relationships among marital status, fertility rate and other socioeconomic factors in Japan in the 2000s by using fixed-effect 2SLS. In addition to higher fertility due to an increase in the number of married females, we demonstrated that economic conditions of males and the male co-residence rate have positive and negative co-relation on the married rate, respectively. We also found a downward convex co-relation between co-residence and parental economic condition, indicating that greater parental assets promote co-residence because of independence of children; however, poor independent parents also promote co-residence in case of less parental assets.

Sex of children and family structure in Brazil: father & grandmother bias?

Brazil has a high rate of mothers living without a partner as well as a high intergenerational co-residence rate, including parents and grandparents. These family types may influence a child’s well-being. Even though there is no evidence of sex-selective abortion in Brazil, sex preference could still be subtly present. This paper tests the composition of family structure (father co-residence, grandmother co-residence, and birth of siblings) in Brazil associated with the sex of the child by using a nationally representative household survey, treating sex of the first and second child as exogenous variables in OLS regressions. I found women with lower birth-order daughters are less likely to live with a partner. I also found suggestive evidence that maternal grandmothers are more likely to live with granddaughters than with grandsons. Women with lower birth-order daughters are more likely to have additional children. Evidence suggests that in Brazil, fathers show a preference for sons over daughters, while grandmothers show a preference for granddaughters over grandsons. Additionally, mothers of girls, without co-residing partners may compensate for the economic loss caused by their lack of partner by living with their own mother. This contributes to the literature on child sex preferences, which has mostly focused on males (fathers); I have analyzed data on grandmothers to include females.

Why Boomerang? Debt, Access to Credit, and Parental Co-residence among Young Adults

A persistent media narrative from the Great Recession is the phenomenon of "boomerang" kids, that is, the rapid increase of young adults moving back in with their baby boomer parents. From a life-cycle perspective, boomerang kids may be delaying wealth-building, and they may be a strain on parental resources. From a macroeconomic perspective, increased rates of parental co-residence have important implications for the economy at large. In this note, we describe our research examining the relationship between debt, access to affordable credit and parental co-residence decisions among young adults.

Patrilocality and Missing Women

Recent scholarship has documented an alarming increase in the sex ratio at birth in parts of East Asia, South Asia and the South Caucuses. I argue that parents engage in sex selection because of patrilocal norms that dictate elderly coresidence between parents and sons. Sex ratios and coresidence rates are positively correlated when looking across countries, within countries across districts, and within districts across ethnic groups. I examine the origins of patrilocality, and find it is most common among ethnic groups which practiced intensive agriculture. I conclude with an examination of how parents respond to changes in public pension programs.

Long-term trends of men’s co-residence with children in England and Wales

AbstractBACKGROUNDIncreasing numbers of childless men as well as with reduced or no contact with their children have sparked concern about an erosion of fatherhood. Although the general trend is undisputed, claims about men's decreasing family involvement lack a sound empirical basis that enables comparisons between countries and sub-groups of society.OBJECTIVEThis study derives long-term trends in father-child co-residence over the life course in England and Wales, and provides comparisons of these trends by level of education and ethnic origin.METHODSThe paper calculates shares of father-child co-residence from the National Statistics Longitudinal Study (LS) and the British Labour-Force Surveys (LFS).RESULTSThere has been a decline of father-child co-residence in England and Wales for men in their thirties, an even greater decline for men in their twenties, and a small increase in the shares of father-child co-residence at higher ages. The trends for different educational groups were similar, but men with a degree had particularly low rates of father-child co-residence at younger ages, and relatively high ones at older ages. Neither less-educated men, nor men from Black-Caribbean and Black-African origins showed rates of father-child co-residence as low as one might have expected.CONCLUSIONSThe steady decline of father-child co-residence among men born between 1930 and 1979 in England and Wales lends support to claims about an erosion of fatherhood. However, it is unwarranted to generalize findings from other countries about particularly low levels of father-child co-residence among less-educated men to men in England and Wales.(ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.)1. IntroductionIn all developed societies, the Second Demographic Transition (Lesthaeghe 1995, van de Kaa 1987) has changed the structure of men and women's life courses. Among the outcome of these transformations are the declining proportions of men living with children of their own, and the number of years of life that men live with their children. These trends have been well documented for the United States (Eggebeen and Uhlenberg 1985, King 1999, Eggebeen 2002, Goldscheider, Hogan, and Bures 2001, Hogan and Goldscheider 2001). In addition, Jensen (1998, 1999) has presented data for a number of European countries - excluding Britain - about the low shares of men in their twenties living with children.The drop in father-child co-residence is one of main bases of claims about fathers pulling out of family life' ( George and Gold 1991) and of shrinking fatherhood' (Jensen 1999). These claims have been linked to a number of problems at the individual and the societal level. A comprehensive body of literature has studied the potentially negative consequences of father absence for child development and well-being (Amato 2000; Lamb 2010). More recently there have been investigations into how fatherhood affects men's own well-being. The few studies addressing this issue indicated a better social integration and closer family ties of (Eggebeen and Knoester 2001; Keizer, Dykstra, and Poortman 2010). Furthermore, it has been argued that a decreasing involvement of in bringing up their children leads to an increased burden on women, who have to shoulder their stronger labour-market engagement without relief from their roles in the home (Jensen 1999). On the societal level, the concerns about increasing numbers of men not living with children of their own are related to claims of a polarization of society into a declining family sector and a diverse non-family sector (Daly 2005). The problems of combining full employment with bringing up children make families more economically vulnerable than childless individuals. With decreasing numbers of parents among employees, this raises fears that work-place culture might become less family friendly. …

Race/Ethnicity, Attitudes, and Living With Parents During Young Adulthood

Non‐White young adults are more likely to live with their parents throughout their 20s, more likely to return home after going away to college, and less likely to leave again after returning. Scholars have speculated that subcultural differences in attitudes toward marriage and family play a key role in generating racial/ethnic differences in rates of coresidence with parents among young adults. Data from the National Education Longitudinal Survey of 1988 (N = 11,228) were analyzed in order to test this hypothesis. Attitudes toward marriage and family were significantly associated with coresidence, especially among young men, but did not substantially account for racial/ethnic differences in living arrangements. Among young non‐White women and young Black men, higher rates of coresidence were related to differences from Whites in socioeconomic or marital status (and sometimes both) that were largely independent of differences in attitudes toward marriage and family.

The Effect of Coresidence With an Adult Child on Depressive Symptoms Among Older Widowed Women in South Korea: An Instrumental Variables Estimation

To estimate the causal effect of coresidence with an adult child on depressive symptoms among older widowed women in South Korea. Data from the first (2006) and second (2008) waves of the Korea Longitudinal Study of Ageing were used. The analysis was restricted to widowed women aged ≥65 years with at least one living child (N = 2,446). We used an instrumental variables (IVs) estimation exploiting two child characteristics as IVs (the number of sons and whether the eldest child is a daughter). Specification tests for IVs showed that these instruments predict the probability of an older widowed woman's coresidence with an adult child but do not directly affect depressive symptoms. Our IV two-stage least-squares estimator suggested that coresidence with an adult child has a protective effect on depressive symptoms among older widowed women in South Korea. Coresidence was found to be endogenous in our statistical model of depressive symptoms. The IV estimation method can be a useful approach to addressing the potential endogeneity between intergenerational coresidence and elderly health. Rapidly decreasing rates of intergenerational coresidence may raise public health concerns among older widowed women in South Korea.

Parent–child co-residence and bequest motives in China

In this paper, I discuss the actual conditions and the determinants of co-residence between older parents and their children in China, especially the impact of bequest motives on parent–child co-residence, using micro data from the “Survey of Living Preferences and Satisfaction,” conducted at Osaka University. More specifically, I use three subsamples of older respondents (those who live in urban areas, those who live in rural areas, and the pooled sample of both) to analyze the impact of bequest motives and other factors on the probability of parent–child co-residence. The results are as follows: bequest motives are strong in China, with more than 60% of respondents having a bequest motive, and the parent–child co-residence rate is also high (about 60%). Turning to the determinants of parent–child co-residence, children of urban parents are more likely to live with their older parents if their parents have a bequest motive, own their own homes, and live in an area where housing prices are high, a result which is consistent with both the selfish life-cycle and altruism models. Children are more likely to live with their older parents if their parents have a bequest motive in both the rural and combined samples, which implies that children are selfishly motivated and that the selfish life-cycle model applies in China.

DOES FAMILY SIZE PREDICT WHETHER AN OLDER ADULT LIVES WITH OR PROXIMATE TO AN ADULT CHILD IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION?

This study examines the probability that an older adult—from one of six Asian societies sampled—lives in the same household or proximate to an adult child and how this probability fluctuates by the number of children, rural/urban residence, and several other covariates. Proximate residence is defined as living either with or near a child. Results show positive and linear associations between number of children and proximate residence, that is, each additional child increases the chances of proximate residence in a relatively consistent way. But, results with co-residence vary more across countries. Virtually no association with co-residence is found in China; each additional child increases the probability of co-residence in Singapore; and there is a positive but non-linear association in other countries. In spite of the different findings, rates of co-residence and proximate residence remain high, particularly in the rural areas. The findings indicate the importance of considering both near and co-residence when examining proximate living. Conclusions regarding a potential decline in support due to changes in living arrangements are somewhat ambiguous—more children increase chances of living proximate to an adult child, but probabilities of living proximate to a child remain high overall, with the possible exception of those with only one living child.

Extended Family Integration Among Euro and Mexican Americans: Ethnicity, Gender, and Class

This article compares the extended family integration of Euro and Mexican American women and men and assesses the importance of class and culture in explaining ethnic differences. Using National Survey of Families and Households II data (N = 7,929), we find that ethnic differences depend on the dimension of integration. Mexican Americans exhibit higher rates of kin coresidence and proximity, but lower rates of financial support than Euro Americans. Two additional differences exist only among women: Mexican American women are more likely than Euro American women to give household or child care help. As to the explanation for these differences, social class is the key factor; cultural variables have little effect. Our findings support a theoretical framework attending to intersections among ethnicity, gender, and class.