Rate Of Increase In Diameter Research Articles

Influence of Diameter Increase Speed on Diameter-Axial Rolling of Large 40Cr13 Stainless Steel Ring

Rolling speed ratios during the rolling process are critical to ring forming in this pepper. The selected roll feed mode is constant with the increasing speed of ring diameter during the main rolling stage. Based on Deform-3D finite element software, a large size ring with a diameter of φ1530 mm was taken as the research object. The numerical model of a large 40Cr13 stainless steel ring is established. The radial-axial rolling process of rings under different diameter increase speeds was simulated, and the changes in radial rolling force, temperature, and strain distribution of rings after rolling were analyzed under different diameter increase speeds. The results show that under the same conditions as other parameters, increasing the ring diameter increase speed has less effect on the temperature and equivalent standard deviation of variation inside the ring after rolling, but has more effect on the external surface, and both SDP and SDT decrease with the increase of ring diameter increase speed. The ring diameter increase speed on the maximum rolling force is more obvious, with the diameter increasing speed increasing. Using the rolling force, temperature standard deviation, and equivalent effect variation standard deviation as reference indexes, the diameter increase rate suitable for 40Cr13 rings is 6 mm/s.

The Growth of Titi Plant (Gmelina moluccana) and Environmental Factors that Affect It

The Growth of Titi Plant (Gmelina moluccana) and Environmental Factors that Affect It

Growth estimation of the larger foraminifer Heterostegina depressa by means of population dynamics.

In Heterostegina depressa, the flagship species of laboratory investigations of larger benthic foraminifera (LBF) since the 70’s, the timing of reproduction, longevity and natural chamber building rates are still understudied. A recently developed method, the natural laboratory (sensu Hohenegger), has been applied on H. depressa populations from Sesoko Jima, NW Okinawa, Japan. An averaged chamber building rate and longevity of H. depressa were calculated based on 17 monthly samplings at fixed stations. All samples were collected at 20 and 50 m water depths using SCUBA. Live populations were dried and investigated by microCT. The monthly frequency distributions of chamber numbers and test diameters have been decomposed in normally distributed components. For each month, mean and standard deviations of the components were used to calculate the maximum chamber number and maximum test diameter. Based on these values, the natural chamber building rate (CBR) or diameter increase rate (DIR) could be estimated using the Michaelis-Menten function. CBR and DIR were inverted to estimate the ‘birthdate’ of all investigated individuals. Based on frequencies of these ‘birthdates’, main reproduction events could be detected and compared to the reproduction timing of other subtropical and tropical LBF taxa. Furthermore, peaks in reproduction could be linked to monsoon wet seasons (=“rainy seasons”) and winter rains.

Early growth and graft success in macadamia seedling and cutting rootstocks

Rootstocks play a vital role in growth and productivity of tree crops through water and nutrient translocation and signal transduction to the scion. Early vigour and graft compatibility of rootstocks are important for further growth and development of the scion, and hence for productivity. This study aimed to identify the variability of early growth and graft success of cuttings and seedlings of different species, cultivars and breeding lines of macadamia that will be subsequently screened in a macadamia rootstock field trial. The experiments were conducted in a mist house at Maroochy Research Facility, Nambour. The experiments comprised macadamia seedlings and cuttings of eight commercial cultivars, fifteen breeding lines, and different sources of wild germplasm of Macadamia tetraphylla, M. jansenii and M. ternifolia. All the existing cultivars and breeding lines in the study are derived from M. tetraphylla and/or M. integrifolia species. There was significant variation among the genotypes in cutting survival and growth rates for both seedlings and cuttings. The study identified a breeding line (BHI2) which produces strong cutting root systems with better striking rates (100%) than existing rootstock cultivars. Cutting survival rate was greatest in standard macadamia rootstocks (79%) and least in M. ternifolia (46%). Growth rate varied depending on the genotype and the method of propagation. ‘H2’ seedlings were greatest for height increase rate, while cuttings of M.jan3, M. ter1, M.ter3, BHI1, BHI2, BHY1, ‘A268’, ‘A4’, ‘D4’ and ‘Daddow’ showed greater growth in height than ‘H2’. Both seedlings and cuttings of BHI2, cuttings of BDW4, M.ter1, M.jan3, BHY1, and seedlings of M.tet2 had greater stem diameter increase rate than ‘H2’. Among groups, standard rootstocks had the greatest rate of increase in height and breeding progeny of high index value had the greatest rate of stem diameter increase. Graft success was significantly higher in seedlings than cuttings. Cuttings of BHI2, ‘D4’ and ‘Daddow’, and seedlings of BDW5, M.tet2, BHI3 and BHY1 outperformed ‘H2’ for graft success. Results from this study suggest that initial rooting in cuttings can be an indicator of graft success. After planting the grafted tree, the relationship of the pre-grafting characteristics of the rootstock with the performance of the scion can be used as tools of identifying high performing rootstocks in the macadamia breeding program.

Growth, chamber building rate and reproduction time of Palaeonummulites venosus (Foraminifera) under natural conditions

We investigated the symbiont-bearing benthic foraminifer Palaeonummulites venosus to determine the chamber building rate (CBR), test diameter increase rate (DIR), reproduction time and longevity using the ‘natural laboratory’ approach. This is based on the decomposition of monthly obtained frequency distributions of chamber number and test diameter into normally distributed components. Test measurements were taken using MicroCT. The shift of the mean and standard deviation of component parameters during the 15-month investigation period was used to calculate Michaelis–Menten functions applied to estimate the averaged CBR and DIR under natural conditions. The individual dates of birth were estimated using the inverse averaged CBR and the inverse DIR fitted by the individual chamber number or the individual test diameter at the sampling date. Distributions of frequencies and densities (i.e., frequency divided by sediment weight) based on both CBR and DIR revealed continuous reproduction throughout the year with two peaks, a stronger one in June determined as the onset of the summer generation (generation 1) and a weaker one in November determined as the onset of the winter generation (generation 2). This reproduction scheme explains the presence of small and large specimens in the same sample. Longevity, calculated as the maximum difference in days between the individual’s birth date and the sampling date, is approximately 1.5 yr, an estimation obtained by using both CBR and DIR.

Dynamic measurement of starch granule swelling during microwave heating

The size of starch granules in dilute aqueous suspension was measured in-line during gelatinization in a microwave-heated, well-mixed system. The results were compared with those of a previous study conducted with conventional heating. For the starches used (common corn, waxy maize, and cross-linked waxy maize), no significant difference was found between microwave and conventional heating in terms of maximum diameter, temperature of maximum rate of diameter increase, or diameter vs. temperature behavior. These results suggest that there are no differences in the swelling behavior of common and modified maize starches between microwave and conventional heating.

Influence of Selective Biochemical and Morphological Agents on Natural History of Aneurysm of Abdominal Aorta Development.

BackgroundThe development of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is probably influenced by many factors. The role of some of these factors, such as intraluminal thrombus (ILT) or cystatin C serum levels, remains controversial. Proving their influence could have therapeutic implications for some patients with AAA. Associations between the rate of increase in diameter of an aneurysm and ILT, as well as other factors, including biochemical factors (C-Reactive Protein – CRP, cystatin C), age, sex, and comorbidities, could predict disease progression in individual patients.Material/MethodsSeventy patients with small AAA were included into the study. The patients were followed using ultrasound and CT imaging. We evaluated aneurysm dimensions and aneurysm wall thickness, as well as ILT and its dimensions, aneurysm wall morphology, CRP, and cystatin C.ResultsWe observed significant growth of AAA and thinning of aneurysmal wall. Aneurysms over 4 cm grew significantly faster in the second year of observation. ILT grew together with AAA size. Age, sex, smoking, dyslipidemias, or controlled arterial hypertension had no influence on aneurysm progression rate. Changes in serum of CRP concentration did not reach statistical significance, but cystatin C levels did.ConclusionsPresence and size of ILT, wall thickness, and cystatin C levels may be considered in prediction of AAA progression. ILT might exert a protective influence on the risk of aneurysm rupture. However, larger aneurysms containing larger thrombi grow faster and their walls undergo more rapid degradation, which in turn increases the risk of rupture. This matter requires further studies.

The Effect of RDX Crystal Defect Structure on Mechanical Response of a Polymer‐Bonded Explosive

AbstractAn explosive composition, derived from AFX‐757, was systematically varied by using three different qualities of Class I RDX. The effect of internal defect structure of the RDX crystal on the shock sensitivity of a polymer bonded explosive is generally accepted (Doherty and Watt, 2008). Here the response to a mechanical non‐shock stimulus is studied using an explosion‐driven deformation test as well as the ballistic impact chamber. No correlation between RDX crystal quality and deformation sensitivity is observed. The DDT behavior (Deflagration to Detonation Transition) of the three plastic bonded explosives, although similar in composition, is distinct regarding the rate of diameter increase in the explosion‐driven deformation test. Recovered polymer bonded explosive from the explosion‐driven deformation test responds equally fast or slower in the ballistic impact chamber. Based on our experimental results the shear rate threshold as a single parameter describing mechanical sensitivity is challenged, and preference is given to the development of an ignition criterion based on inter‐granular sliding friction under the action of a normal pressure.

Modeling of predissection aortic size in acute type A dissection: More than 90% fail to meet the guidelines for elective ascending replacement

The current guidelines for ascending aortic replacement were determined from already dissected aorta diameters. Previous computed tomography-based work on humans who underwent imaging before and directly after aortic dissection onset has shown an average 30% increase in the ascending aortic diameter with acute dissection. The present investigation evaluated the incidence of predissection ascending aortic dilatation in acute type A dissection. From 2002 to 2013, 495 patients presented with acute type A aortic dissection to 1 center. Of these cases, 343 were non-Marfan, nonbicuspid with spontaneous dissection etiology. In those with available preoperative computed tomography angiograms (n = 83) or transesophageal echocardiograms (n = 260), the predissection ascending aorta diameters were modeled from the dissected aorta diameters by subtraction of the average diameter increase rate. Altogether 343 patients were included (age, 62 years; range, 53-73; 64% men). The median modeled predissection ascending diameter was 3.7 cm (first quartile, 3.3; third quartile, -4.1). Of the 343 patients, 334 (97%) and 315 (92%) had an ascending diameter before dissection onset of <5.5 cm and <5.0 cm, respectively. More than 60% of women and 70% of men had a nondilated ascending aorta before type A dissection onset. The median predissection ascending aortic diameter did not differ between women and men (3.7 cm; first quartile, 3.4; third quartile, 4.2; vs 3.7 cm; first quartile, 3.3; third quartile, 4.1; P = .810). More than 60% of patients with spontaneous, non-Marfan, nonbicuspid, type A dissection will have a nondilated ascending aorta before dissection onset. Only 3% would meet the criteria for elective ascending replacement to prevent aortic dissection. Additional research on the genetic and biochemical predictors of aortic dissection is essential.

An investigation into the reaction behavior of tubular braids due to internal pressure

Braiding has many applications in different industries as an internal pressurized cylinder. In these conditions, a sustainable structure without any wrinkling and unevenness is quite necessary. Using thin wall structures with closed ends and under internal pressures as a braid is addressed in the present study. With the use of a silicon vessel as the core, the braids with different angles and weavings were produced. They were exposed to internal pressure from zero to failure point. All stages of change in the shapes of the samples were recorded by a camera and the pressure–diameter results were extracted in 10 s once. In this research, the authors elaborate on the theory of stress and wrinkling moment created in these braids under internal pressure, and then they develop a new testing method by which they compare the obtained results with the theory. Following that, the relationship between the angle and failure pressure is investigated to determine the best braid angle in braiding used as thin wall structures. In the braid angle of ± 55°, all the forces created in braid due to internal pressure are along with strands direction and the increase in the cylinder diameter of the braid has been completely controlled depending on strands’ elongation. The rate of diameter increase in the angles of less than ± 55° is fast, especially in pressures close to failure pressure. However, in the bigger angles, the elongation or, in other words, the diameter decrease is observed in braiding.

What women want - quantifying the perception of hair amount: an analysis of hair diameter and density changes with age in caucasian women

It has long been known that women lose satisfaction with their hair with ageing. Our data show that caucasian women perceive a decrease in hair amount in their mid 40s with a further decrease in the mid to late 50s, which leads to this dissatisfaction. Neither loss of density (hairs per cm(2) ) nor shaft diameter alone can fully account for this perception. A new metric, 'hair amount', is proposed as a quantitative metric combining the impact of both density and diameter on the perception of hair loss. Creation of a single parameter combining the contribution of diameter and density to perception of female age-related hair loss. In total, 1099 caucasian women (ages 18-66 years) with self-perceived hair loss and 315 caucasian women (ages 17-86 years) with no complaint of hair loss were evaluated. Scalp hair diameter was measured using optical fibre diameter and image analysis. Scalp hair density was measured by phototrichogram with manual or automated counting. Parietal scalp hair diameter increased from ages 20 to 40-45 years, then decreased. Hair density was highest in the youngest group, age 20-30 years, and decreased thereafter with increasing rate. In women self-perceiving hair loss, the rate of decrease in density was significantly faster than for women with no self-perception of hair loss. The combined metric 'hair amount' was relatively constant at younger ages, increasing very slightly to age 35 years, then decreasing significantly. Increasing hair shaft diameter offsets decreasing hair density through the mid 30s. After that, a lower rate of diameter increase combined with the decrease in density begins to significantly impact the perception of hair amount so that thinning becomes increasingly more noticeable in the mid 40s to the mid to late 50s. Quantitative determination of hair amount is a useful tool to combine the contributions of hair density and diameter to women's perception of age-related hair loss.

The impact of exercise training on the diameter dilator response to forearm ischaemia in healthy men

Recent studies found differences between groups in the rate of diameter increase following the flow-mediated dilation (FMD). Whilst exercise training alters the magnitude of the FMD, little is known about the impact of exercise training on the rate of diameter increase. The aim of this study is to examine post-cuff deflation changes in brachial artery diameter following 5 min forearm ischaemia every 2 weeks across 8-weeks of a handgrip exercise training regimen. Post-deflation changes in brachial artery diameter following 5-min of ischaemia were examined before, after and every 2-weeks across an 8-week handgrip training programme in healthy young men (n = 11) using echo-Doppler. The magnitude of dilation increased at week 2-4-6, but returned towards baseline values at week 8 (anova: P = 8.001). The time-to-peak diameter (42 ± 15s) demonstrated a significant prolongation at week 4 (77 ± 32s), but returned towards baseline values at weeks 6 and 8 (anova: P < 0.001). The rate of diameter increase did not differ across the intervention. Exercise training in healthy subjects is initially characterized by a larger dilation. Since the rate of dilation did not change, a longer time-to-peak dilation was necessary to achieve the increase in magnitude of dilation. As exercise training continues, the timing and magnitude of the peak diameter response returns to near baseline levels.

Lung cancer growth dynamics

Mathematical modeling furnishes valuable and otherwise unattainable insights, some counterintuitive, into the natural history of lung cancer. We modeled lung cancer growth dynamics to show that: (1) early diagnosis of lethal lung cancer by means of radiographic or CT screening is an unattainable goal. (2) At a given dimension and constant tumor volume doubling time, the rate of diameter increase is an exponential function (base 1.26) of the number of tumor volume doublings, and the rate of increase in volume, a quadratic function of the radius. (3) This methodology delineates the magnitude of diameter increase in small nodules required to discern volume growth. (4) Under the assumption of a high degree of compliance with sequential screens in large-scale trials, mean tumor volume doubling time can be estimated from the prevalence:incidence ratio. For example, in the Mayo Clinic computerized tomography trial, stage IA tumor volume doubling time was 230 days.

An empirical model for transient crater growth in granular targets based on direct observations

Abstract The present paper describes observations of crater growth up to the time of transient crater formation and presents a new empirical model for transient crater growth as a function of time. Polycarbonate projectiles were impacted vertically into soda-lime glass sphere targets using a single-stage light-gas gun. Using a new technique with a laser sheet illuminating the target [Barnouin-Jha, O.S., Yamamoto, S., Toriumi, T., Sugita, S., Matsui, T., 2007. Non-intrusive measurements of the crater growth. Icarus, 188, 506–521], we measured the temporal change in diameter of crater cavities (diameter growth). The rate of increase in diameter at early times follows a power law relation, but the data at later times (before the end of transient crater formation) deviates from the power law relation. In addition, the power law exponent at early times and the degree of deviation from a power law at later times depend on the target. In order to interpret these features, we proposed to modify Maxwell’s Z-model under the assumption that the strength of the excavation flow field decreases exponentially with time. We also derived a diameter growth model as: d ( t ) ∝ [ 1 - exp ( - β t ) ] γ , where d ( t ) is the apparent diameter of the crater cavity at time t after impact, and β and γ are constants. We demonstrated that the diameter growth model could represent well the experimental data for various targets with different target material properties, such as porosity or angle of repose. We also investigated the diameter growth for a dry sand target, which has been used to formulate previous scaling relations. The obtained results showed that the dry sand target has larger degree of deviation from a power law, indicating that the target material properties of the dry sand target have a significant effect on diameter growth, especially at later times. This may suggest that the previously reported scaling relations should be reexamined in order to account for the late-stage behavior with the effect of target material properties.

The Porous Surface Model, a Novel Experimental System for Online Quantitative Observation of Microbial Processes under Unsaturated Conditions

Water is arguably the most important constituent of microbial microhabitats due to its control of physical and physiological processes critical to microbial activity. In natural environments, bacteria often live on unsaturated surfaces, in thin (micrometric) liquid films. Nevertheless, no experimental systems are available that allow real-time observation of bacterial processes in liquid films of controlled thickness. We propose a novel, inexpensive, easily operated experimental platform, termed the porous surface model (PSM) that enables quantitative real-time microscopic observations of bacterial growth and activity under controlled unsaturated conditions. Bacteria are inoculated on a porous ceramic plate, wetted by a liquid medium. The thickness of the liquid film at the surface of the plate is set by imposing suction, corresponding to soil matric potential, to the liquid medium. The utility of the PSM was demonstrated using Pseudomonas putida KT2440 tagged with gfp as a model bacterium. Single cells were inoculated at the surface of the PSM, and the rate at which colonies expanded laterally was measured for three matric potentials (-0.5, -1.2, and -3.6 kPa). The matric potential exerted significant influence on colony expansion rates, with a faster rate of spreading at -0.5 than at -1.2 or -3.6 kPa (diameter increase rate, ca. 1,000, 200, and 17 microm h(-1), respectively). These differences can be attributed to cell motility, strongly limited under the most negative matric potential. The PSM constitutes a tool uniquely adapted to study the influence of liquid film geometry on microbial processes. It should therefore contribute to uncovering mechanisms of microbial adaptation to unsaturated environments.

Similarity of the Swine Vasculature to the Human Carotid Bifurcation: Analysis of Arterial Diameters

We assessed the similarities of the iliac bifurcation in two breeds of swine to the known human carotid bifurcation, in order to assess its applicability as a preclinical model of the human carotid bifurcation. Mixed-Landrace crossbreed (domestic; n = 66) and Yucatan miniswine (Yucatan; n = 13) were studied. The diameters of the iliac bifurcation arteries were measured from angiographic pictures, the relations between the arterial diameters and the animal's weight assessed, and diametrical ratios calculated. Findings were compared with the known human carotid bifurcation. The external iliac diameter (approximately 6-7mm) in the lower weight swine was similar to the known human common carotid artery. The best similarity was found between the diametrical ratios of the human internal to common carotid artery (mean 0.63) to the swine profunda to external iliac (means 0.68 and 0.65 for the domestic and Yucatan, respectively). The arterial diameters of the domestic swine were highly correlated with their weight that increased considerably with time, while in the Yucatan group, arterial diameters did not change with increasing weight and the average weight increase rate was low. Thus, the estimated arterial diameter increase rate over time was high in the domestic while minor in the Yucatan group. Similarities were found between the swine iliac bifurcation arteries to the human carotid bifurcation in terms of diameters, diametrical ratios and angle. The swine iliac bifurcation may be used for preclinical endovascular research of devices intended to the human carotid bifurcation, with miniswine strains a preferable model for long-term studies.

DYNAMICS OF FRUIT GROWTH IN 'CONFERENCE' PEAR AS AFFECTED BY ROOT PRUNING, IRRIGATION AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

In 2002, daily fluctuations in trunk diameter and fruit diameter on ‘Conference’ pear trees were measured with linear voltage displacement transducers. On an average sunny day in July, trunk diameter started to decrease around 10 a.m. when air temperature increased. This continued until 8 p.m. when air temperature started to decline. Fruit diameter growth of ‘Conference’ ceased as soon as trunk diameter started to decrease and resumed immediately after trunk diameter started to increase. When fruit growth took place, the rate of diameter increase was fairly constant and was ~ 0.04 mm/h. Root pruning without irrigation significantly affected tree growth but not fruit growth. Fruit size increase was almost linear from early May up to harvest at the beginning of September and averaged 3.9 mm/week. Relationships between fruit growth, climatic condition, soil water availability and cultural practices are discussed

Left Ventricular Outflow Obstruction

Left ventricular outflow tract obstructions (LVOTOs) encompass a series of stenotic lesions starting in the anatomic left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) and stretching to the descending portion of the aortic arch (Figure 1). Obstruction may be subvalvar, valvar, or supravalvar. These obstructions to forward flow may present alone or in concert, as in the frequent association of a bicuspid aortic valve with coarctation of the aorta. All of these lesions impose increased afterload on the left ventricle and, if severe and untreated, result in hypertrophy and eventual dilatation and failure of the left ventricle. LVOTOs are congenital in the vast majority of individuals younger than 50 years in the United States; some variants of subaortic obstruction are the exception. It is imperative to consider all patients with LVOTO at a high risk for developing infective endocarditis, and one should always institute appropriate measures for prophylaxis. The present article is intended as a contemporary review of the causes, manifestations, treatments, and outcomes of LVOTO; it will not address LVOTO in the pediatric population or genetic hypertrophic cardiomyopathy but will focus strictly on congenital malformations in the adult. Figure 1. Artist’s rendering of the LVOTO lesions in sequence as viewed from a superolateral orientation. A, Gradient echo cardiac MR image as viewed from the frontal projection demonstrating flow acceleration at a site of supravalvar aortic stenosis (white arrow) in a patient with Williams syndrome. The black arrow identifies the level of the unrestricted aortic valve. B, Classic radiological signs of coarctation of the aorta: rib notching (white arrows) as seen on a posteroanterior chest x-ray in a patient with coarctation of the aorta. The rib notching is caused by erosion of the inferior rib margins by dilated pulsatile posterior intercostals collateral arteries. The black arrow points to the Figure 3 silhouette that …

The Intraluminal Thrombus as a Source of Proteolytic Activity

Most abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) with a diameter indicating need for surgical repair contain intraluminal thrombus (ILT). The development of AAA is linked to degradation of elastin and collagen. These changes are more pronounced in the aneurysm wall covered by the ILT, which also shows more signs of inflammation and is thinner compared to the aneurysm wall exposed to flowing blood. The rate of increase in diameter of AAA correlates with increased thrombus growth and rupture. CT examinations of patients with rupture have demonstrated contrast appearing in the thrombus suggesting bleeding into it. Studies using gene array of human aneurysm specimens have shown that most matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) were upregulated in the thrombus-free wall. Analyses by zymography, however, demonstrate gelatinase activity in the interface between the thrombus and the underlying wall and in the media of the wall not covered by a thrombus. The thrombus contains large amounts of neutrophils. Neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin (NGAL) is involved in the regulation of MMP-9 activity and prevents its inactivation, thus augmenting the proteolytic effect. It has been identified in all layers of the ILT. The presence of NGAL/MMP-9 complexes throughout the thrombus and in the thrombus-covered wall may contribute to the increased proteolytic degradation seen in this wall segment. In conclusion, the presence, growth, and thickness of the ILT have been shown to be associated with growth and risk of rupture. The wall underlying the thrombus is thinner and shows more signs of proteolytic degradation. Increased proteolytic activity by MMP-9 may be mediated by binding to NGAL.

A Contribution to the Life History of the Rare Indonesian Holoparasite Rafflesia patma (Rafflesiaceae)1

ABSTRACTFates and growth of Rafflesia patma buds and insect visitation to the flowers were monitored in an evergreen tropical rain forest in the Pangandaran Nature Reserve, Java, Indonesia, Of 59 buds marked in December 1985, 44 percent died before flowering, 7 percent flowered, and 49 percent were still in bud in May 1986. Mammals and birds caused the deaths of buds before they reached maturity. Only four buds flowered between December 1985 and May 1986; all were male. Rate of increase in diameter (cm/d) was much faster in large than in small buds. Once opening began, the flower opened fully in 24 to 48 hours; the flower remained open for three to five days before rotting. Only two genera of insects visited a male flower of R. patma: Lucilia and Sarcophaga (Diptera). Insect visitation was highest in the afternoon (1300–1700 h) and on the second or third day after flower opening. The increased number of flies visiting the flower coincided with the increasing odor emitted from it. Results of the present study were combined with information from the literature to construct a life cycle diagram of R. patma.