Rasch Measurement Model Analysis Research Articles

Behavioural Response Patterns on the Government Incentives Influencing Compliance Behaviour of Business Zakat among SMEs

Government incentives and compliance behaviour of business zakat have a significant relationship as revealed by a few studies. However, the lack of study focused on respondents' response on the government incentives in influencing compliance behaviour of business zakat. Hence, this article examines the usage of Rasch Wright map in evaluating the behavioural response patterns on the government incentives and compliance behaviour of business zakat among SMEs. A total of 276 questionnaires were collected from SMEs entrepreneurs in Selangor. The Rasch Measurement Model was employed to analyze the data. Out of the 276 questionnaires collected, only 247 responses were consistent with the Rasch Measurement Model. Among the respondents, 107 individuals (43.3%) who complied with business zakat payment were influenced by government incentives, while 140 individuals (56.7%) who did not comply with business zakat payment were likely not influenced by government incentives. This study's results highlight the importance of the Rasch Measurement Model in elucidating the response patterns of participants, demonstrating its ability to explain how government incentives impact compliance behavior regarding business zakat among SMEs. This study has illustrated that this method of analysis is expedient in identifying the unusual and inappropriate response patterns and items based on fit statistics and misfit response series compared others. This shows that the Rasch Measurement analysis is an alternative tool to investigate the behavioural response patterns since analyze items and respondents of the study. This study suggests that future research regarding compliance and zakat employ the Rasch Measurement Model analysis as an alternative method to identify ability of respondents and the response behavior patterns among respondents.

Psychometric properties of teacher classroom assessment literacy instrument using Rasch model analysis

<span lang="EN-US">A teacher classroom assessment literacy (TeCAL) instrument was developed to measure the level of teacher classroom assessment literacy in schools. TeCAL contains 66 multiple choice items with four options based on four constructs namely purpose, measurement, evaluation and use. Thus, this study aims to identify the psychometric properties of TeCAL using Rasch measurement model (RMM) analysis through Winstep software version 3.72.3. The findings show that the compatibility values of mean square (MNSQ) infit and outfit items ranged from 0.64 to 1.46 and 0.40 to 2.23, respectively. The value of MNSQ outfit was outside the set range, but still met the other fit statistics indicator which has a positive point measure correlation (PTMEA) value. In addition, the findings show that the empirical raw variance explained by measures is 38.2%. It was very close to the modeled value of 38.4% with the empirical unexplained variance in 1st contrast being 7.5% less than the maximum controlled 15%. Largest standardized residual correlations identified 10 pairs of dependent items to be less than 0.7. The person and item reliability index values were 0.94 and 0.89 with separation index values of 2.90 and 3.80, respectively. Overall, this psychometric analysis is crucial to ensure that the TeCAL instrument has good quality and meaningful to use.</span>

E038 A common measure of the impact of glucocorticoids in patients with inflammatory and autoimmune conditions - the Steroid PRO: A cross-cultural validation study with Rasch models

Abstract Background/Aims Systemic glucocorticoids are key in the management of life- and organ-threatening rheumatic diseases, but have wide-ranging adverse effects of concern to patients and clinicians. We aimed to validate a Patient Reported Outcome (PRO) measure (the Steroid PRO) for assessing the impact of glucocorticoids on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in patients receiving glucocorticoids for rheumatic disease. Methods This was a cross-sectional study of adults from the UK, USA, Australia and New Zealand, taking glucocorticoids for a rheumatic disease. An online survey was conducted at two time points: Time 1: (i) demographics - age, gender, country, ethnicity, educational level; (ii) clinical information - diagnosis, glucocorticoid dose; (iii) 40 candidate items for the Steroid-PRO, developed in a previous qualitative study; (iv) EQ5D-5L. Time 2 (optional, completed 3-5 days later): (i) the Steroid PRO candidate items; (ii) a condition change question. The survey was distributed via social media and patient organisations. After descriptive analysis, iterative testing with Rasch measurement model and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) informed item reduction and established structural validity, reliability and unidimensionality of the final Steroid-PRO. Item reduction was based on clinical importance, lack of fit to the Rasch model, and redundancy. Evidence of discriminative validity of the Steroid-PRO was established by comparing its scores for participants receiving lower dose glucocorticoid (up to 10 mg) versus higher dose (>10 mg). Intraclass correlation (ICC) between Time 1 and Time 2 was calculated for patients who reported ‘no change’ compared with 3-5 days ago. Results A total of 946 patients returned complete responses at Time 1 (Time 2: 447 responses). They were from UK, n = 743 (78.5%); USA, n = 139 (14.7%); Australia, n = 59 (6.2%). Their mean age was 57.6 (SD = 13.6); 833 (88%) were women. They were treated for inflammatory arthritis (n = 194), connective tissue disease and/or vasculitis (n = 398), and giant cell arteritis and/or polymyalgia rheumatica (n = 341). A total of 25 items were removed due to floor effects and lack of fit to the Rasch model. The remaining 15 items showed a satisfactory fit to the model. EFA suggested a scale structure with four domains: Participation (4 items), Appearance (3 items), Psychological (5 items), and Treatment concerns (3 items). This 4-domain structure was supported by the Rasch model, confirming construct validity; χ2=47.82 (DF = 36), p = 0.899; and reliability (Person Separation Index, PSI=0.757). Patients on a lower glucocorticoid dose had lower Steroid-PRO domain scores than those receiving higher dose (discriminant validity). ICC between Time 1 and Time 2 ranged from 0.892 to 0.942 (95%CI 0.868 to 0.953) suggesting excellent (test-retest) reliability. Conclusion The final Steroid-PRO is a 15-item, valid and reliable 4-domain scale measuring the impact of glucocorticoid therapy on HRQoL of people with rheumatic diseases. Disclosure S. Bridgewater: Grants/research support; S.B. has received funding for research from Vifor Pharma. M. Ndosi: Grants/research support; M.N. has received funding for research from Vifor Pharma. J. Dawson: None. P. Richards: None. C. Silverthorne: None. E. Dures: Grants/research support; E.D. has received funding for research from Vifor Pharma. S. Goodman: Consultancies; S.G. reports consultancy for UCB. Grants/research support; S.G. has received research support from Novartis. Other; S.G. has given talks for NYU, Case Western, ACR Rheumatology Courses. C. Hill: None. S.L. Mackie: Consultancies; S.L.M. has provided consultancy on behalf of her institution for Roche/Chugai, Sanofi, AbbVie, AstraZeneca. Grants/research support; S.L.M. has been an investigator on clinical trials for Sanofi and GSK, as a research grant co-applicant, S.L.M. has received research funding (partial salary support) from Vifor, paid to her institution. Other; S.L.M. has given talks on behalf of her institution for Pfizer, Vifor and UCB. In all cases fees were paid to her institution and no personal fees were received, S.L.M. was supported by Roche to attend EULAR2019 and by Pfizer to attend ACR2021 virtually. J.C. Robson: Consultancies; J.C.R. reports: Consultancy for Vifor Pharma. Grants/research support; Funding for research from Vifor Pharma. Other; Speaking fees from Vifor Pharma.

THE PREFERENCE OF WRITING APPROACH AMONG ESL TEACHER TRAINEES IN PRIMARY EDUCATION

Deterioration in the command of English language among Malaysian students has been discussed far and wide. English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers strive to adopt and adapt various strategies to customize lessons, particularly the writing lessons to enable students to write in English. Thus, this study was conducted to investigate the writing instructions practised by the teacher trainees in selected ESL primary classrooms in Malaysia. The study scrutinized the details of the two writing approaches used with regard to the product approach and process approach. Ten teacher trainees were selected using the purposive sampling method. A mixed-method design was employed. The participants were observed using an observation checklist and interviewed. The data were analyzed using Rasch Measurement Model and thematic analysis. It was found that the Product Approach was preferred to the Process Approach due to its practicality in the application. The strategies of the Process Approach were found to be useful but the participants were unable to apply them rampantly due to time, institutional and pedagogical factors. Thus, this study recommends that educational intuitions and policymakers focus on more sophisticated writing strategies and approaches to enhance the writing abilities among students to cultivate independent writing skills and habits.

The Dyskinesia Impairment Scale, Second Edition: Development, construct validity, and reliability.

To create a shortened, more user-friendly Second Edition of the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale (DIS-II) to assess dystonia and choreoathetosis, and evaluate its construct validity and reliability. Scale development included an online expert meeting (n=21) and iterative discussions within the research group (n=6). A Rasch measurement model analysis on DIS scores from individuals with dyskinetic cerebral palsy or inherited/idiopathic dystonia (n=123, 74 males, mean age14 years, SD5 years) was performed to evaluate the construct validity and reliability of the DIS-II. The DIS-II evaluates dystonia and choreoathetosis in action and rest in 11 body regions, with action items scored from 0 to 3 and rest items 0 to 2. The number of videos to record are reduced from 26 to 14 and the items to score are reduced from 144 to 88. Rating scale functioning, goodness-of-fit evaluation, principal component analysis, and targeting met the predefined quality criteria of the study and construct validity was therefore considered good. Furthermore, person reliability indicated that the DIS-II can separate individuals into eight distinct ability levels. The DIS-II provides valid and reliable measures for dystonia and choreoathetosis, and reduces the administration and scoring time compared with the DIS. The DIS-II logit scores (interval level data) enhance comparison over time and between individuals in clinical practice and research. Compared with the Dyskinesia Impairment Scale (DIS), the shortened edition (DIS-II) requires half of the number of videos to be scored. The DIS-II has a simplified rating scale, requiring scoring of 88 instead of 144 items. The DIS-II has shown excellent reliability and good construct validity. The interval properties of the DIS-II are superior to the ordinal level outcome measures of the DIS.

Validity and Reliability of Survey Items in Employer Perspective Construct on the Quality of ECCE: Rasch Measurement Model Analysis

This paper examines and verifies the reliability of a survey instrument on the long term impact of early childhood and childcare education (ECCE) toward human capital development. The survey consists of separate questionnaires based on four perspectives; Individual Success, Peers, Parents and Employer perspective. This study highlights the reliability of item constructs from the employer perspective questionnaire distributed in the pilot study. This instrument was developed based on 56 items, and was further categorised into three sub-constructs; 1) individual character, 2) soft skills; and 3) good citizenship. Rasch Measurement Model analysis supported by Winsteps software version 3.73 was utilised to examine reliability of item and person, polarity of item and suitability of item. Findings from analysis of reliability of item indicated that Individual Character subconstruct showed a good level of reliability, whilst Soft Skills and Good Citizenship subconstructs showed reliability below par. Further analysis on polarity of item indicated all items scored positive values to measure the construct. While analysis on item fit revealed that a total of 6 items from the three subconstructs were discarded as they did not meet the criteria specified in the Rasch Model.

Development and Validation of Psychometric Properties of the 10 IB Learner Profile Instrument (10IBLP-I): A Combination of the Rasch and Classical Measurement Model.

Background: The International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme (IBMYP) aims to produce a holistic transformation with creative and critically minded students. However, very little attention has been paid to the development of an instrument to measure the IB learner profile with good psychometric properties. Purpose: This study aims to develop an instrument with good psychometric properties, based on the Rasch measurement model and confirmatory factor analysis. Methods: The study consists of two phases of pilot and field studies involving 597 year four students from IBWS MOE. Results: The findings from the Rasch measurement model analysis have shown that 54 items meet the criteria of the item fit, unidimensionality, and reliability index. Meanwhile, confirmatory factor analysis found that 44 items have shown a valid item fit index. Conclusions: The combination of both analyses has shown the strength of 10IBLP-I psychometric properties that cover the aspects of validity and reliability. The findings also provide an implication to the theory, with empirical evidence that the IB learner profile consists of 10 constructs. Besides, the evidenced 10IBLP-I comprises good psychometric properties, which can be used to measure the level of IB learner profile among IBWS MOE students to assess the effectiveness of the implementation of IBMYP in Malaysia.

Construct Validity of the 29‐Item Sense of Coherence Scale: Exploratory Analysis of a Compatible Three‐Factor Model Using a Rasch Measurement Model1

AbstractSense of coherence means perceiving one's experiences as coherent; it has been shown to be important for mental health and well‐being. This study examined the item fit and construct validity of the 29‐item Sense of Coherence (SOC) Scale using the Rasch measurement model and confirmatory analysis. Based on the values of item Infit and Outfit mean square, the total number of items in the scale was reduced from 29 to 20. Verifying the three‐factor structure using the fitted items revealed an acceptable goodness‐of‐fit (CFI = .915, SRMR = .058, RMSEA = .064). All results, including the values of item difficulty for each response category, suggest that omitting some items and revising the number of response categories is effective. Examinations improving the structural validity and measurement accuracy of the SOC Scale in this study may contribute to psychological assessment in epidemiological and clinical studies.

Reliability and Construct Validity of the Leipzig Short Scale of Sense of Coherence (SOC-L9) in Japanese Sample: The Rasch Measurement Model and Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Reliability and Construct Validity of the Leipzig Short Scale of Sense of Coherence (SOC-L9) in Japanese Sample: The Rasch Measurement Model and Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Conceptions and Alternative Assessment Practice in Malaysian Higher Education

Malaysian government has specifically called for assessment reform in higher education to align with the current needs. In most practices, educators in higher education implemented both of traditional and alternative assessments but lack of empirical studies on alternative assessments. Thus, this study aimed to examine and analyse the assessment conceptions and the alternative assessment practices among educators in one of Malaysia premiere research university. This study randomly selected 118 respondents form three different clusters; Engineering (E), Social Sciences and Humanities (SSH) and Sciences and Technology (ST) to respond to a questionnaire known as Conceptions and Alternative Assessment Survey (CETAS). Based on Rasch Measurement Model analysis using Winsteps, this study found that, regardless of different clustering and level of teaching experiences, educators in this premiere research university shown positive conceptions of assessment and have been frequently practicing various alternative assessment to assess their students learning. As this study only investigate the issue descriptively, it is recommended that future study could examine the correlation between the two constructs; conception (4 dimensions) and practice (8 types of alternative assessment) in the context of other research universities, similarly public and private universities in Malaysia.

Measuring Instrument Constructs for Knowledge Management System Governance Using Rasch Measurement Model

Knowledge management system (KMS) has become an important asset to the organisation. KMS acting as a tool in supporting organisation knowledge management (KM) practices. The advancement of internet technology makes it easier for organisation KMS working in a collaborative manner. With the rapid development of KMS in organisation, collaboration among these KMS would make a smooth sharing of information. This research aims to scrutinize the governance mechanism of KMS used in managing and controlling the agency KMS. From the previous study, the governance mechanism had been identified based on the development of the conceptual framework. This study investigates the relationships of governance mechanism that consist of two main sub-systems: (1) KMS governance; and (2) collaborative KMS. A survey was conducted by distributing a questionnaire to 25 respondents from eight (8) Malaysian government agencies. The respondent comprises of Community of Practice (CoP), Subject Matter Expert, ICT experts and KM User. The aim of this paper is to determine the validity and reliability of each dimension in the questionnaire using the Rasch Measurement Model (RMM) analysis. The survey was developed comprises 2 sections consisting of 40 items. A total of 21 responses were received. The RMM is used to measure the quality control of item dimensions in the instrument. As a result, almost all the items in the questionnaire constructs were statistically reliable and valid for further analysis, and a few items need to be revised and changed. This specifies that the respondents are reliable and the items are reasonable for this study.

Development of the Hand Assessment for Infants: evidence of internal scale validity.

The aim of this study was to develop a descriptive and evaluative assessment of upper limb function for infants aged 3 to 12 months and to investigate its internal scale validity for use with infants at risk of unilateral cerebral palsy. The concepts of the test items and scoring criteria were developed. Internal scale validity and aspects of reliability were investigated on the basis of 156 assessments of infants at 3 to 12 months corrected age (mean 7.2mo, SD 2.5) with signs of asymmetric hand use. Rasch measurement model analysis and non-parametric statistics were used. The new test, the Hand Assessment for Infants (HAI), consists of 12 unimanual and five bimanual items, each scored on a 3-point rating scale. It demonstrated a unidimensional construct and good fit to the Rasch model requirements. The excellent person reliability enabled person separation to six significant ability strata. The HAI produced an interval-level measure of bilateral hand use as well as unimanual scores of each hand, allowing a quantification of possible asymmetry expressed as an asymmetry index. The HAI can be considered a valid assessment tool for measuring bilateral hand use and quantifying side difference between hands among infants at risk of developing unilateral cerebral palsy. The Hand Assessment for Infants (HAI) measures the use of both hands and quantifies a possible asymmetry of hand use. HAI is valid for infants at 3 to 12 months corrected age at risk of unilateral cerebral palsy.

Influence Of The Democratic Climate Of Classrooms On Student Civic Learning

This study is intended to examine the influence of the democratic climate of classrooms on student engagement and learning outcomes in order to find out a more adequate model of learning in Civic Education classrooms. A model is developed for testing with data obtained from a sample of 930 students from schools in North Sulawesi. Prior to the analysis, scales are analysed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and are calibrated using Rasch Measurement Model Analysis (RMMA). The analysis shows that the trimmed model (Model B) is slightly more coherent and simpler than the hypothesised model (Model A). However, both models indicate that the democratic climate of Civic Education classrooms has significant effects on student engagement, student civic knowledge and interpretation skill, and student concepts of citizenship.

VALIDITAS DAN RELIABILITAS INSTRUMEN PENGETAHUAN PEMBELAJARAN AKTIF, KREATIF DAN MENYENANGKAN (PAKEM) MENGGUNAKAN MODEL RASCH

Instruments of Active, Creative, Effective and Fun learning (PAKEM) were created to measure teachers' knowledge about the PAKEM’s concept as a form of learning strategies implemented in teaching in schools and madrasahs. This study was conducted to produce empirical evidence on the validity and reliability of the PAKEM instrument using the RaschMeasurement Model analysis. A Survey study has been conducted on 30 teachers fromMadrasah Ibtidaiyah School (MI) in the Aceh Districts. The validity and reliability of the PAKEM instrumentswere tested with the Rasch.Measurement Model analysis usingthe Winsteps program. The unidimensionality test conducted showed standarlized residual variance of 37.9 % which is almost to the point of at least 40.0 % points desired by Rasch models . The Rasch Model analysis showed person reliability index of 0.77 and the item reliability index of 0.88 . In terms of polarity items showed that all the items have value Point Correlation Measure ( PMC ) positive means there is no conflict between the items and the constructs being measured . Value Mean Square also showed that all the items have a mean square less than 1.5 , which means the value of the measurement of productive unless the item Peng10 (2.21) and item Peng1 (3.88). For both of these items need to be re- examined because it has a problem in measuring validity. The results of this study have proved that PAKEM instrument has a standard value of validity and reliability to be usedin measuring knowledge PAKEM strategis for teachers.

Measuring Instrument Constructs of Return Factors for Green Office Building Investments Variables Using Rasch Measurement Model

This paper is a preliminary study on rationalising green office building investments in Malaysia. The aim of this paper is attempt to introduce the application of Rasch measurement model analysis to determine the validity and reliability of each construct in the questionnaire. In achieving this objective, a questionnaire survey was developed consists of 6 sections and a total of 106 responses were received from various investors who own and lease office buildings in Kuala Lumpur. The Rasch Measurement analysis is used to measure the quality control of item constructs in the instrument by measuring the specific objectivity within the same dimension, to reduce ambiguous measures, and a realistic estimation of precision and implicit quality. The Rasch analysis consists of the summary statistics, item unidimensionality and item measures. A result shows the items and respondent (person) reliability is at 0.91 and 0.95 respectively.

Evaluating user Readiness towards Digital Society: A Rasch Measurement Model Analysis

Abstract The emergence of the internet has brought about many implications to the already existing media and the way we communicate to one another and do things. Several scholars have conducted studies to understand the factors responsible for technology acceptance. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is one of the much referred models for technology acceptance where perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness are recognized as the two main factors that influence computer usage behavior. Subsequently, there have been several studies aiming at extending and modifying the TAM by proposing additional variables believed to contribute to the acceptance of technological innovation. This study aims at exploring and testing other factors that have not been explained by Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) in determining the acceptance of communication and information technology (ICT). A survey was conducted to obtain the necessary primary data from 300 respondents in the Klang Valley, a metropolis consisting of the federal territory of Kuala Lumpur and the state of Selangor. Rasch measurement model is used in analyzing the data in measuring the readiness of the respondents towards being a digital society. Ten constructs are prescribed in the questionnaire to better understand the society and the Internet and its application usage.

Applying a Force and Motion Learning Progression over an Extended Time Span using the Force Concept Inventory

This exploratory study applied a proposed force and motion learning progression (LP) to high-school and university students and to content involving both one- and two-dimensional force and motion situations. The Force Concept Inventory (FCI) was adapted, based on a previous content analysis and coding of the questions in the FCI in terms of the level descriptors of the LP. Using a Rasch measurement model and latent class analysis, students' responses were tested for fit with the proposed LP. Results indicated that the recoded FCI response options are generally consistent with a progression of difficulties as proposed in the LP, and that the students could be organized into different groups with progressively different levels of ability. However, reliability for the ability estimates was only moderate and response options at lower levels of the LP were not well differentiated. Implications for the assessments with LPs and revisions for both the FCI and the force and motion LP are also discussed.

Empirical Study of Cost Management Success Determinants in Agile based Software Development Project: A Rasch Measurement Model Analysis

Ineffective cost management in software development causes project over budget and strongly contributed to project failure. Due to that, it is important to look at the success determinants that help software development community to have better cost management of the project. This paper identifies the success determinants in agile based software development project. The online survey is used in order to collect data from the respondents. The items involve the cost management process in the company in Malaysia. This paper used Rasch Measurement Model to analyze the result. Preliminary findings show a small number of respondents and the respondents are not representing the sampling unit becomes a problem to generalize the result. As a result, this paper provides very low item reliability and person reliability is acceptable. Therefore, more feedback from respondent is needed in order to increase the item and person reliability.

Development of the Mini‐Assisting Hand Assessment: evidence for content and internal scale validity

To describe the development of the Mini-Assisting Hand Assessment (Mini-AHA) for children with signs of unilateral cerebral palsy (CP) aged 8 to 18 months, and evaluate aspects of content and internal scale validity. The ability of the video-recorded Mini-AHA play session to provoke bimanual performance in children with unilateral CP and typical development was evaluated. Original AHA test items were examined for their suitability for younger children and possible new items were generated. Data from 108 assessments of children with unilateral CP (86 children, 53 males, 33 females; mean age 13 mo, SD 3 mo, range 8-18 mo) were entered into a Rasch measurement model analysis to evaluate internal scale validity. A Spearman's correlation analysis explored the relationship between age and ability measures for children with unilateral CP. The frequency of maximum scores in 40 children with typical development (22 males, 18 females; mean age 12 mo, SD 3 mo) was examined. The Mini-AHA play session provoked bimanual responses in typically developing children 99% of the time. Person and item fit criteria established 20 items for the scale. The resultant unidimensional scale also demonstrated excellent discriminative features through high separation reliability. The item calibration values covered the range of person ability measures well. Age was not related to the ability measures for children with unilateral CP (rs =0.178). All children with typical development achieved maximum scores. Accumulated evidence shows that the Mini-AHA validly measures use of the affected hand during bimanual performance for children with unilateral CP aged 8 to 18 months. The Mini-AHA has the potential to be a useful assessment to evaluate functional hand use and the effects of intervention in an age group when potential for change is high.

An Analysis of the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale within the Malaysian Context using the Rasch Measurement Model

Many concerns have been raised about the psychometric properties of instruments when used in different culture. Studies show that adaptation of instrument within a particular context sometimes has different meaning since a particular psychology construct is considered cultural specific. The purpose of the present study is to examine the psychometric properties of the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) within the Malaysian educational context A total of 191 Malaysian in-service and 122 pre-service teachers participated in the study. A Rasch Measurement Model analysis is used to examine the psychometric properties of the scale, particularly the reliability and construct validity. Analyses showed somewhat similar variability with the in-service group demonstrated wider spread of item difficulty compared to the pre-service teachers. One important observation was that both group endorsed different set of items. Consistency of both item difficulty and teachers’ efficacy were high and threats to construct validity in terms of construct irrelevant-variance and construct under-representation were minimum. One worrying finding, however, was that the differential item function (DIF) analysis showed that 13 items (54.17%) behaved significantly different across groups of teachers. Even though several items shown to behave differently across both group of teachers, overall results are encouraging and seem to support the suitability of the TSES to assess teachers’ sense of efficacy within the Malaysian educational context.