Raptor Species Research Articles

Seasonal variation in riverine diurnal raptors in the Área de Conservación Regional Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo reserve, north-eastern Peru

ABSTRACT The tropics are a stronghold for diurnal raptor species, with 28% of these species found in South America, and Neotropical raptors being a particularly understudied group. In this study, we conducted a riverine survey to understand the seasonal distribution patterns of the raptors in the Área de Conservación Regional Comunal Tamshiyacu Tahuayo reserve in north-eastern Peru. In both the dry and rainy seasons, we surveyed five 4 km transects along the Tahuayo river at three different times of day (early/late morning and afternoon), while moving at 4–5 km/hr in a motor boat. A total of 928 individuals were sighted across 26 species of diurnal raptors. Seven of these species showed differences in abundance between the dry and rainy seasons. We compared the results from this study to that of a rapid assessment conducted 13 years prior, the only major avian survey conducted in the reserve, and found nine new documented raptor species for the reserve. The differences in the findings of this study and the previous one conducted in the reserve display the value of and need for repeated long-term monitoring in areas of high biodiversity to allow a more thorough understanding of the communities found there.

Application of DNA metabarcoding in the dietary pattern of a nonbreeding white-tailed eagle population in Northeast Asia under supplementary feeding

Food supplementation has become an increasingly prevalent strategy for animal conservation. A large white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) population exists in a wetland in Northeast Asia during the boreal winter, mainly because of regular supplementary feeding. However, the use of supplementary food by eagles has not been assessed. In this study, we used non-invasive sampling and DNA metabarcoding to investigate the food composition of white-tailed eagles in a lake near a supplementary feeding site. Our results revealed that supplemental food was present in 94% of the samples, with a weighted percent of occurrence (wPOO) of 64.62%. In addition to supplementation, we identified 11 natural prey species, including fish, birds, and mammals, from freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems. After February, there was an increasing trend in the frequency of natural food items, especially of marine fish, in the diet of the eagles. Our study demonstrates the power of DNA metabarcoding in dietary studies of raptor species in the presence of supplementary feeding. Based on our results, multiple recommendations have been provided to achieve adaptive management of large nonbreeding populations of eagles in our study area.

Diurnal raptors of Eastern Himalayan foothills: Taxonomic and functional diversity attributes

Abstract Raptors are crucial indicators of ecosystem health, and thus, requires research attention. Despite an upsurge in Indian ornithology, raptors remain poorly studied, particularly in Northeast India. Here, we measured the taxonomic and functional diversity of raptors in Manas National Park, Assam. The study was conducted between 2018–2022. We surveyed 39 standard transects and recorded 776 individuals of raptors belonging to 30 species in different habitats: forest, open and mosaic. The taxonomic alpha diversity was highest in mosaic habitat and lowest in the forest habitat. Crested Serpent Eagle (Spilornis cheela) was the most abundant raptor in open and forest habitats, while Collared Falconet (Microhierax caerulescens) was dominating in mosaic habitats. Of the recorded raptor species, 66.67% were classified as residents, and 33.37% were winter migrants. We also measured the functional alpha diversity of raptors using the data collected from AVONET database. We used ten functional traits and evaluated the functional alpha diversity indices. The functional richness was the highest in open habitats and functional divergence was the highest in mosaic habitats, also functional evenness was the highest in open habitats and lowest in mosaic habitats. We suggest intensified research on raptors in the region, to identify and address critical research question which facilitates the conservation of these apex predators.

Winter population of raptor species in the Vellalore dump yard of Coimbatore City, India

A study from December 2020 to March 2021 in the Vellalore dump yard, Coimbatore City in southern India recorded 34 bird species, including seven raptors. Notably, two vulnerable species of winter migrant raptors, the Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga, and the Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax were the most frequently observed. The presence of cow carcasses, poultry, and fish waste in the dump yard attracted scavenger birds, particularly raptors. The study utilized the systematic vantage point method to gather data and aims to establish a baseline understanding of the winter raptor population and other bird species in the garbage dump yard. This research serves as a foundation for long-term monitoring and conservation efforts.

Avian raptors are indicator species and victims of high pathogenicity avian influenza virus HPAIV H5N1 (clade 2.3.4.4b) in Germany

Transition of highly pathogenic clade 2.3.4.4b H5 avian influenza virus (HPAIV) from epizootic to enzootic status in Northern European countries was associated with severe losses and even mass mortalities among various wild bird species. Both avian and mammalian raptors hunting infected debilitated birds or scavenging on virus-contaminated avian carcasses contracted HPAIV infection. This precarious pathogen-prey-predator relation further worsened when in 2021 and 2022 outbreaks in Germany overlapped with the hatching season of avian raptor species. Retro- and prospective surveillance revealed avian raptors as important indicators of HPAIV and its genetic diversity on the one hand. On the other hand, their role as victims of HPAIV is stipulated. The first case of an HPAIV H5N1-related death of a white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla; WTSE) hatch in Germany, 2021, followed by several such cases in 2022, and a low overall seropositivity rate of 5.0–7.9% among WTSE nestlings, raised fears of a serious negative impact on reproduction rates of WTSEs and other birds of prey when HPAIV becomes enzootic in an ecosystem. However, comparably stable breeding success of WTSE in the study area in 2022 and a potentially evolving natural immunity raises hope for a less severe long-term impact.

Unraveling Plastic Pollution in Protected Terrestrial Raptors Using Regurgitated Pellets

The threat of plastic pollution has escalated to unprecedented levels, with particular concern surrounding microplastics (MPs) and artificial fibers or particles (AFs) due to their wide distribution across ecosystems and their bioavailability to wildlife. Although research on the impact of plastic on wild birds is rapidly growing, knowledge of terrestrial species remains limited, especially regarding raptors, which have been significantly understudied. Here, we investigated the prevalence of MPs and AFs in regurgitated pellets from six protected terrestrial raptor species, namely the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus), the Bonelli’s Eagle (Aquila fasciata), the Little Owl (Athene noctua), the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), the Red Kite (Milvus milvus), and the Barn Owl (Tyto alba), collected between 2022 and 2023. Our analysis revealed that 68% of the pellets contained MPs (47 out of 69), and 81% contained AFs (56 out of 69). Additionally, two macroplastics were found inside the pellets: a cable tie in a Red Kite and a bird identification ring in a Cinereous Vulture. The concentrations (mean ± standard error of the mean) were 2.39 ± 0.39 MPs/pellet and 5.16 ± 0.72 AFs/pellet. The concentration of MPs and AFs varied significantly among some of the studied species; however, no significant differences were observed among urban, rural, and protected areas. This could indicate that contamination levels are mainly related to the type of species. Fibers emerged as the predominant contaminant shape, with six different polymers identified, among which PET, PE, and acrylics were the most prevalent. These findings highlight that plastic pollution has reached protected terrestrial raptors and that the impact of plastic on their life cycles needs to be assessed.

Imprinted habitat selection varies across dispersal phases in a raptor species

Natal Habitat Preference Induction (NHPI) plays a significant role in shaping settlement decisions in dispersive animals. Despite its importance, limited research has explored how NHPI varies during natal dispersal phases and across different types of natal habitats. In this study, we examined NHPI in 77 GPS-tagged juvenile red kites (Milvus milvus) originating from different natal habitats along an elevational gradient in Switzerland. We applied individual-based step selection analysis to investigate habitat selection from independence to settlement. We found that during the prospecting phase, individuals predominantly selected habitats similar to their natal environments. However, this pattern changed in the settlement phase: individuals fledged from habitats at higher elevations or closer to urban areas mostly avoided similar habitats (negative NHPI), while those from areas with more farmlands or pastures (combined with forests) showed a preference for similar habitats (positive NHPI). Moreover, the magnitude and individual variation in NHPI differed depending on the natal habitat types from which individuals originated. These findings highlight that strength, direction, and individual variation in NHPI differ between natal habitat types and dispersal phases. Natal habitats therefore can have pervasive legacy effects on subsequent habitat selection, likely affecting population and range dynamics.

Liver and Let Die? A Retrospective Analysis of Secretarybird Mortality in European Zoos.

The secretarybird (Sagittarius serpentarius) is a threatened African raptor species, and as such requires conservation attention. While the species is managed under a European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) Ex-situ Programme (EEP), no studies of mortality are currently available. A retrospective mortality project was therefore conducted to identify the most common causes of death in captive secretarybirds, with a view to informing management decisions. Data were collected by requesting the postmortem reports from zoos where secretarybirds had died and combining this with the existing data recorded in the Zoological Information Management System. Overall, 167 birds were recorded as having died within the EEP population, of which post-mortem information was available for 51 (30.54%) individuals. Trauma was the most common cause of death identified (22 birds, 13.17%), with infection appearing as the second most prevalent cause (15 birds, 8.98%). One incidental finding at postmortem was that many (9) birds showed evidence of liver damage, with reports of bacterial hepatitis, staphylococcal infection, lesions, and dark coloration. Further research into liver complications and diet composition for secretarybirds may therefore have value in reducing mortality. Similarly, investigating strategies to reduce trauma caused by other enclosure occupants or conspecifics may have value in lengthening lifespans for this endangered species.

Using stakeholder knowledge to co-produce research priorities for a raptor species vulnerable to impacts of wind energy facilities

The global energy transition necessitates a rapid increase in infrastructure in developing countries, including for wind energy facilities (WEFs). Concerns arise regarding the negative impacts of WEFs on biodiversity, especially on birds of prey or raptors and other volant animals. In Africa, South Africa has the largest installed wind energy capacity and also hosts several raptor species of conservation importance. One such raptor is the regionally endemic Jackal Buzzard Buteo rufofuscus (family Accipitridae), which has its core population in South Africa. Despite frequent fatalities from collisions with wind turbine blades, this species is understudied. To address this gap, we conducted interviews with key stakeholders in the wind energy sector, including avifaunal specialists, wind energy developers, government representatives, and conservation nongovernmental organisations. The goal was to begin a cooperative process to identify crucial research gaps and to establish a future research agenda for Jackal Buzzards in the context of wind energy development. Stakeholders expressed confidence in current environmental impact assessment (EIA) techniques but highlighted a concern for direct collisions as a significant threat to Jackal Buzzards. The consensus was that WEFs are more likely to cause local rather than national population-level impacts. Although stakeholders generally shared similar opinions, minor differences emerged between groups. Movement ecology studies were identified as a high priority for future research on this species. By collaboratively formulating research priorities, this study aims to improve the relevance of future investigations, fostering stakeholder buy-in for potential policy and EIA practice recommendations.

To breed or not to breed: Territory occupancy is predicted by reproductive performance and habitat heterogeneity.

Species life history and anthropogenic influence are important drivers of population performance and viability in human-dominated ecosystems. How these factors affect habitat selection and occupancy in long-lived species is an important topic for their conservation. Long-term datasets are needed for establishing the underlying drivers of this process. In this 22 year-long study, we conducted annual surveys of Bonelli's eagle in the east of the Iberian Peninsula. During this period, 42.8% of the known territories remained unoccupied. Territories with a higher likelihood of raising two chicks over time were stable, evidenced by a lower coefficient of variation in productivity, and were more likely to remain occupied. Moreover, territories with lower habitat diversity, dominated by coniferous forest or agricultural fields, and those located further away from the coast and at higher altitudes showed lower rates of occupancy (i.e., unoccupied >3 consecutive years). To validate these associations, we monitored space use of 22 individuals equipped with Global Positioning System/Global System for Mobile (GPS/GSM) transmitters, which confirmed that eagles selected for open habitats (mainly scrublands and transitional woodland-scrubs) intermixed with forest areas within their home ranges. In contrast, individuals avoided areas dominated by agricultural, urban, and continuous forests for breeding in line with the observations for unoccupied territories. Our results highlight the important interplay between natural and anthropogenic factors, which also have important implications for other raptor species. Preservation of the most productive territories and the re-occupancy of unoccupied territories along with reducing threats in the preferred habitats are fundamental actions that should be taken immediately to sustain viable populations. Potential management actions include enhancing natural prey density through habitat restoration and conservation, mitigating threats and reducing mortality risks due to power lines, fences, poisoning, and maintaining habitat heterogeneity important to eagles' hunting activities.

Predicting anthropogenic food supplementation from individual tracking data

Many wildlife species consume food or refuse provided by humans. To understand the effect of anthropogenic food subsidies on wildlife populations, we first need to quantify where and when individuals can access such food sources. The Red Kite Milvus milvus is an opportunistic raptor species and uses both inadvertent and deliberate food subsidies provided by citizens. Here we present a new approach using global positioning system (GPS)‐tracking data to predict where anthropogenic food subsidies probably occur. We tracked 497 individuals with solar‐powered GPS transmitters over an average of 3.2 (range 1–9) breeding seasons in Switzerland, and combined these data with locations of 125 known feeding sites obtained through interviews. We used two sequential random forest models, at both individual movement and population levels, to predict where anthropogenic food subsidies were attended by Red Kites. The first model classified locations that were frequently and regularly revisited, and successfully predicted 85% of locations that were within 50 m of an externally validated feeding site. These predicted locations were aggregated in 500‐m grid cells to calculate the proportion of individuals and locations associated with predicted food subsidy. A second model related the presence of known food subsidies to the aggregated predictions. In our study area, 80% of known anthropogenic food provision locations could be correctly identified using Red Kite tracking data, but data sparsity beyond the core range of tracked individuals limits predictions of anthropogenic food subsidies at larger geographical scales. Nonetheless, biologging data can identify ephemeral food sources, and facilitate an assessment of the importance of anthropogenic food subsidies for the fitness of individuals in tracked populations.

Effects of wind turbine dimensions on the collision risk of raptors: A simulation approach based on flight height distributions

Wind energy development is a key component of climate change mitigation. However, birds collide with wind turbines, and this additional mortality may negatively impact populations. Collision risk could be reduced by informed selection of turbine dimensions, but the effects of turbine dimensions are still unknown for many species.As analyses of mortality data have several limitations, we applied a simulation approach based on flight height distributions of six European raptor species. To obtain accurate flight height data, we used high-frequency GPS tracking (GPS tags deployed on 275 individuals). The effects of ground clearance and rotor diameter of wind turbines on collision risk were studied using the Band collision risk model.Five species had a unimodal flight height distribution, with a mode below 25 m above ground level, while Short-toed Eagle showed a more uniform distribution with a weak mode between 120 and 260 m. The proportion of positions within 32–200 m ranged from 11 % in Marsh Harrier to 54 % in Red Kite.With increasing ground clearance (from 20 to 100 m), collision risk decreased in the species with low mode (−56 to −66 %), but increased in Short-toed Eagle (+38 %). With increasing rotor diameter (from 50 to 160 m) at fixed ground clearance, the collision risk per turbine increased in all species (+151 to +558 %), while the collision risk per MW decreased in the species with low mode (−50 % to −57 %).These results underpin that wind turbine dimensions can have substantial effects on the collision risk of raptors. As the effects varied between species, wind energy planning should consider the composition of the local bird community to optimise wind turbine dimensions. For species with a low mode of flight height, the collision risk for a given total power capacity could be reduced by increasing ground clearance, and using fewer turbines with larger diameter.

Keystone species in an urban environment: Do raptors control the Mexican gray squirrel in Mexico City?

Urbanization has forced animals to respond to novel environments. One of the basic questions in urban ecology is if ecological processes that occur in natural conditions also occur in urban environments. In natural ecosystems, key predators can limit prey abundance and have a widespread effect on trophic levels. Here, we examine a predator-prey interaction in Mexico City, an urban ecosystem where prey can be evaluated in the presence or absence of apex predators. Nearly all original ecosystems in Mexico City have been transformed for human purposes. Many of the green spaces in the city contain populations of the Mexican gray squirrel, a species native to this area. These green spaces are also inhabited by different species of raptors, the most frequent being Harris's hawk, Cooper's hawk, and sharp-shinned hawk. Little is known about the interactions between raptors and squirrels, particularly how different environmental factors influence this ecological relationship. We do know, however, that raptors prey on squirrels. We predicted that in parks where raptors were present, there would be fewer squirrels than in parks where there were no raptors. We studied the relationship between raptors and squirrels using occupancy models, which also allowed us to evaluate environmental factors that affect the presence of both squirrels and raptors. We also tested if the presence of raptors influenced the occupancy probability of squirrels, and vice versa. Lastly, we estimated the abundance of squirrels in parks, both where raptors were present and where they were absent. Contrary to our predictions, in our first two sampling periods we found a positive relationship between the presence of raptors and squirrel abundance, but this relationship was absent during our second two survey periods, which was due to a decline in squirrel abundance in parks where raptors were present. These results suggest that predator-prey interactions occur in urban settings much as they do under natural conditions, but that other factors unique to urbanization can also impact the abundance of raptors and squirrels. Our findings also suggest that raptors might be an effective means of controlling squirrel populations under some conditions.

Investigation of models to estimate flight performance of gliding birds from wakes.

Mathematical models based on inviscid flow theory are effective at predicting the aerodynamic forces on large-scale aircraft. Avian flight, however, is characterized by smaller sizes, slower speeds, and increased influence of viscous effects associated with lower Reynolds numbers. Therefore, inviscid mathematical models of avian flight should be used with caution. The assumptions used in such models, such as thin wings and streamlined bodies, may be violated by birds, potentially introducing additional error. To investigate the applicability of the existing models to calculate the aerodynamic performance of bird flight, we compared predictions using simulated wakes with those calculated directly from forces on the bird surface, both derived from computational fluid dynamics of a high-fidelity barn owl geometry in free gliding flight. Two lift models and two drag models are assessed. We show that the generalized Kutta-Joukowski model, corrected by the streamwise velocity, can predict not only the lift but also span loading well. Drag was predicted best by a drag model based on the conservation of fluid momentum in a control volume. Finally, we estimated force production for three raptor species across nine gliding flights by applying the best lift model to wake flow fields measured with particle tracking velocimetry.

Moderate evidence for the sex‐dependent effect of poisoning on adult survival in a long‐lived raptor species

AbstractSurvival rate is usually the greatest contributor to population growth in long‐lived species, and its accurate estimation along with the evaluation of the factors influencing it is therefore essential for effective conservation. Here, we studied the survival of breeding eastern imperial eagles Aquila heliaca in Hungary between 2011 and 2022 and investigated the effect of poisoning, the leading known anthropogenic cause of mortality. We used the Cormack‐Jolly‐Seber mark‐recapture model to estimate annual apparent survival and encounter probabilities based on the capture histories of 208 males and 411 females. We obtained encounter data from the DNA profiles of shed feathers collected at the nest sites, which we also supplemented with presences inferred from parentage analysis. The most supported model estimated a constant 91.6% annual survival over the study period, but models including the effect of sex and poisoning rate on survival had similar support. Sex difference in survival was less than 1% on average, but the survival of males decreased more with poisoning rate than the survival of females. However, due to smaller encounter probabilities, the estimates for males were less precise compared to females. Males may be more at risk from poisoning than females not only due to their more active foraging behaviour during incubation and chick‐rearing but also due to their smaller body size. Apart from providing direct practical information for the conservation management of imperial eagles, our results also highlight the importance of long‐term studies for estimating population parameters of birds of prey.

Birds of prey in the historical past of Eastern Europe: Evidence from bones

The results of the study of birds of prey remains from the southern part of Eastern Europe are analysed in the paper. The studied material comes from 169 archaeological sites of different age (Neolithic/Eneolithic, Bronze Age, Early Iron Age, Early Middle Ages, Kyivan Rus Time, and the Modern Age). Twenty-eight species of raptors were identified in the samples. Of them, hawks, eagles, and vultures are represented by 20 species, while falcons and owls are less diverse (each are represented by only four taxa). Particular birds of prey species were more widely distributed in the historical past of the studied region and were characterised by higher abundance compared to modern times. The remains of owls are especially numerous in materials from Neolithic, Eneolithic, and Bronze Age settlements. The Early Iron Age was the time of a high abundance of diurnal raptors, which were used for different purposes by the people inhabiting the territory of modern-day Ukraine. Only a few birds of prey were recorded for the Early Middle Ages and the Modern Age, most probably due to economic issues and the development of animal husbandry. Numerous remains of hawks and a lesser amount of falcon bones were found at settlements of the Kyivan Rus state, which is associated with the spread of gamehawking while falconry with falcons was available mainly to the elite of that time. The results of archaeornithological studies are supplemented and corroborated to some extent with the information taken from literature sources and by analysing the ancient images of birds.

Widespread use of anticoagulant rodenticides in agricultural and urban environments. A menace to the viability of the endangered Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata) populations

Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are one of the most toxic groups of compounds currently used worldwide for rodent pest control. Toxic baits are often, directly or indirectly, ingested by non-target animals, resulting in secondary poisoning and frequently affecting apex predators. Their presence in many species of raptors is quite common, particularly scavenger species, with some of these acting as sentinels for the presence of these substances in the environment. However, there is less data on the presence of ARs in Bonelli's eagle, one of the most endangered eagle species in Spain and which is experiencing a negative population trend in Europe. This medium-sized eagle feeds predominantly on live species, and rarely consumes carrion.In this study, 17 carcasses of Bonelli's eagles from the Eastern Spain were necropsied. Both first and second generation ARs in their livers were analyzed by HPLC-MS-TOF revealing that all the eagles studied had been exposed to at least 5 ARs, out of a total of 10 ARs analyzed, with 7 being the highest number of ARs detected in a sample. Second generation ARs were the most prevalent, particularly bromadiolone and brodifacoum, with the highest concentrations in 94% of the cases. More than a third of the eagles presented a liver concentration of greater than 200 ng/g ARs, suggesting AR poisoning.The elevated presence of these compounds in Bonelli's eagles could be a new cause of mortality for this species or could explain other causes of death, such as the increased mortality in power lines, and should be taken into account for their conservation. At the same time, the presence of these compounds in the environment also represents a risk to public health, as the most frequent species in the diet of Bonelli's eagle (rabbits and partridges) are also hunted and consumed by hunters and their families.

Recognize nuance when interpreting monitoring results

Abstract We recently published a study discussing the pitfalls of non‐probability sampling when selecting monitoring sites. We demonstrated that selecting sites based on abundance can often lead to biased inference, and we suggested that researchers use probability sampling. We also called for nuance when interpreting results of monitoring programs that use non‐probability sampling. We suggested that inference from sites of great abundance might still be useful for inference into population dynamics of long‐lived species such as raptors. Perret et al. seem to misinterpret our call for nuance as advocating for non‐probability sampling. They state that we concluded the general recommendation of using probability sampling should be revised. We did not conclude this. In fact, we agree with their recommendation. Perret et al. implemented simulations that are unrealistic within the context of our study. We use empirical data for 12 raptor species to demonstrate that our previous results are valid and that simulations implemented by Perret et al. do not reflect the biology of long‐lived raptors. The time series simulated by Perret et al. fluctuated greatly in abundance with populations often more than doubling within a year. This is extremely unlikely for populations of long‐lived species having high site fidelity. Many historical programs monitor sites of great abundance and thus risk biased results. We demonstrate that this risk is minimal under some important conditions and our results likely apply to other long‐lived species. Acknowledging this nuance could rescue many long‐term monitoring programs and their data thereby preserving efforts of costly conservation programs. Consistent with our original study, these exceptions do not invalidate the general recommendation to avoid non‐probability sampling; however, they do support our call for nuance when interpreting results of studies that monitored animals at sites of great abundance.

Raptors in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India

The present checklist results from extensive long-term field observation from 2011 to 2022. Field observations were systematically conducted during the mornings (6:00 to 10:00) hr and in the evenings (16:00 to 18:00) hr every month from 2011 to 2022. The study recorded 58 species of raptor species, with 32 resident and 26 winter visitors, including nine globally threatened species: three Critically Endangered, two Endangered, four Vulnerable, and six Near Threatened. The presence of 58 raptor species, including seven vulture species, signifies the importance of the healthy ecosystem in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve.

New records of Suncus etruscus (Soricidae, Mammalia) and its current status in Bulgaria

We present 17 new records of Suncus etruscus in Bulgaria, and the first finding of the species north of Stara Planina Mountains. The species is recorded in the diet of three owl species - Tyto alba, Asio otus and Athene noctua, and one bird of prey - Aquila heliaca. The bulk of records originated from T. alba, in the rest raptor species it is taken randomly and consists negligible part of their diet. Additionally, five dead shrews were used, which provided hard evidence for the presence of S. etruscus in north Bulgaria. All data on the species distribution in Bulgaria are summarised and the roads for its invasion are discussed. Climate change is considered as an expansion trigger for spreading of the Etruscan shrew.