Rape Myth Acceptance Research Articles

Perceptions of interest and agency explain disagreements about sexual violations

Sexual violations have profound, negative impacts on victims. But although most people agree that sexual assault and other sexual violations are wrong, they often disagree about which acts constitute sexual violations. Moral psychological research suggests that evaluations about right and wrong actions are based on social perceptions, for instance about how actions affect others. Three studies examined whether perceptions about victims’ sexual interest and agency explain disagreements about ambiguous sexual violations (situations that lacked explicit and consistent consent or non-consent). The studies also examined whether such perceptions about sexual interest and agency in concrete situations related to general beliefs about sexual encounters, known as rape myths. Participants read hypothetical vignettes about potential sexual violations and reported their perceptions and evaluations of the events. Studies 1 and 2 found that, in response to ambiguous events, participants who perceived greater sexual interest and agency in the targets of sexual actions evaluated the actions more positively. The studies also found that, relative to ambiguous events, participants evaluated consensual events more positively and nonconsensual events less positively. As an experimental test of the effects of perceived target interest, Study 3 manipulated conventions for signaling sexual interest. The results provided experimental evidence that perceptions of sexual interest guide evaluations of potential sexual violations. Across the three studies, individual differences in two forms of Rape Myth Acceptance predicted perceptions of target interest and agency. This research provides evidence for how social perceptions shape evaluations of potentially ambiguous sexual events, thus validating a framework for explaining and preventing disagreements about sexual violations.

Rape Myth Acceptance and General Self-Efficacy: Gender, Race, and Ethnic Differences of Knowing a Sexual Assault Victim among University Students.

Knowing a sexual assault victim and general self-efficacy (GSE) were examined as predictors of rape myth acceptance (RMA) among university students. Where knowing a sexual assault victim was associated with greater rejection of rape myths among female students, most notably White females, a null effect occurred on male students, except for Black males whose RMA increased. Higher self-efficacy predicted the overall rejection of rape myths differently among identity intersections, most prominently with victim blaming. Knowing a sexual assault victim moderated GSE and RMA for male students and Latinos. These findings offer practical and critical implications as universities grow in diversity.

Rape Myth Acceptance in Indian Adults: A Demographic Analysis

Rape Myth Acceptance in Indian Adults: A Demographic Analysis

Men's Attitudes Toward Third Party Casual Sex Predict Rape Myth Acceptance

Men's Attitudes Toward Third Party Casual Sex Predict Rape Myth Acceptance

Perceptions of Common Rape: How Rape Myth Acceptance, Victim Gender, and Victim Resistance Affect Victim and Perpetrator Blame Attributions in Party Rape and Date Rape.

Among rape perception studies, common types of male rape remain understudied. Using a randomized vignette design, I sampled 622 college students from a large Southwestern university to examine how victim gender and victim resistance influence blame attributions in party rape and date rape. Results revealed important interactions between victim gender, victim resistance, and rape type. Among other effects, resistance only affected victim blame in date rapes involving male victims. Results indicated that how respondents perceive victim and perpetrator responsibility, and which factors influence these perceptions, vary across rape type and victim gender. Implications for the rape perception literature are discussed.

Effect of pretrial publicity via social media, mock juror sex, and rape myth acceptance on juror decisions in a mock sexual assault trial

ABSTRACT Determining the influence of irrelevant victim information on potential jurors is particularly important in the current age of social media. The present study explored the effects of pretrial publicity concerning the complainant shared via social media posts, mock juror sex, and rape myth acceptance on mock juror judgments in a sexual assault case. One hundred and fifty-six community members residing in the United States (77 males, 78 females, 1 decline to answer) over the age of 18 were randomly assigned to view either pro-complainant (n = 52), anti-complainant (n = 53), or control (n = 51) messaging in social media posts before reading a mock sexual assault trial transcript, completing a post-trial questionnaire, and answering questions about rape myth acceptance. Results indicated that participants in the anti-complainant condition were significantly less likely to select a guilty verdict compared to the control condition. Male participants and those that believed consent was present were also significantly less likely to select a guilty verdict. Moreover, participants with higher rape myth acceptance were more likely to believe that the complainant had consented. Results highlight social media as a potential source of exposure of inadmissible pretrial information that may influence trial outcomes.

Trauma-Informed Sexual Assault Investigations Training: Lessons Learned Attempting to Enhance Sexual Assault-Related Understanding and Reduce Rape Myth Beliefs and Burnout among Police Officers

Abstract The City of Mobile Police Department’s (MPD) multidisciplinary Sexual Assault Kit Initiative team sought to identify and amend factors that theoretically contribute to high rates of sexual assault case attrition. First, the current study examined cross-sectional relations among officers’ rape myth endorsement, perceived understanding of trauma-informed sexual assault investigations, and burnout level. Second, using a cohort-based longitudinal design, this study assessed the effectiveness of MPD’s department-wide adoption of a professional development module in increasing self-reported understanding of trauma-informed investigations and reducing rape myth beliefs and burnout (T1, n = 331; T2, n = 229). Rape myth beliefs differed by burnout type and level. Officers with clinically high levels of emotional exhaustion or depersonalization reported greater rape myth acceptance and estimates of falsely reported rapes than those with average or low levels of emotional exhaustion or depersonalization. Officers with a high sense of personal accomplishment endorsed lower rape myth acceptance than but similar false reporting estimates to officers with average or clinically low levels of personal accomplishment. Months post-training, officers endorsed greater perceived understanding of trauma-informed sexual assault investigations. However, reductions in officers’ rape myth beliefs or burnout were not detected; on average, officers reported increased burnout at T2 regardless of whether training attendance was confirmed. Effective ways to achieve and sustain rape myth reductions while preventing and reducing burnout are needed.

Development and Validation of the Teen Dating Aggression Measure Among Canadian Youth.

Teen dating violence (TDV) victimization is a traumatic experience that can have adverse consequences for adolescents. Current measures that assess TDV do not fully distinguish between psychological and relational forms of aggression, nor do they capture aggressive acts that are common within adolescent relationships. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Teen Dating Aggression Measure (TeDAM) using a sample of 730 Canadian adolescents (M = 15.88 years, SD = 1.23). The measure is an expansion of the Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory and includes items that describe other forms of violence such as coercion and control, along with more traditional indicators of dating violence (e.g., sexual aggression). Factor analyses yielded three factors, namely psychological aggression, sexual and physical aggression, and relational aggression, which were correlated with more frequent cannabis and alcohol use as well as rape myth acceptance. These results provide initial support for the utility of the TeDAM for assessing TDV with adolescents.

Development and Preliminary Validation of the Gender Inclusive Rape Myth Acceptance Scale.

Rape myths are widespread and contribute to a rape culture that excuses and normalizes permissive attitudes surrounding rape and sexual assault. To combat rape culture and decrease sexual assault, many programs focus on reducing rape myth acceptance (RMA). To best assess outcomes of such prevention efforts, we must ensure we are accurately measuring this construct. Current RMA scales are decades old and focus almost exclusively on cisgender women. As such, they are outdated and leave out important experiences of cisgender men and gender diverse individuals. The Gender Inclusive Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (GIRMA) was developed to address such limitations in current measures. Two studies were completed to develop and establish preliminary validation of the GIRMA. Study One included 614 adults in the United States, recruited through Amazon's Mechanical Turk; Study Two included 414 adults in the United States, recruited in the same way. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted with an original pool of 73 items that included myths about the experiences of cisgender women, cisgender men, transgender, and gender diverse individuals. Parallel analysis indicated a single factor structure for measuring rape myths. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted for Study Two, which supported the single-factor approach. These analyses resulted in a concise, robust, inclusive 18-item scale to measure rape myths. Model fit was excellent, as was reliability. Additionally, construct validity was supported through examining the relationship between the GIRMA and previously validated RMA and sexism scales. The GIRMA offers researchers the ability to fully assess the construct of rape myths in a short, psychometrically sound manner. Future research is needed to investigate the reliability of the GIRMA in other populations.

She Asked for It: Hardcore Porn, Sexism, and Rape Myth Acceptance.

The present study examined pornography viewing, rape myth acceptance, and sexist attitudes. Data came from 392 male and 903 female participants. Multigroup SEM indicated neither pornography viewing, nor hardcore pornography viewing, were related to rape myth acceptance when controlling for sexist attitudes among men. Wald tests indicated hostile sexism to be a significantly stronger predictor of all rape myths examined compared to pornography viewing or hardcore pornography viewing in men and women. Latent variable interaction analyses suggested hardcore pornography viewing as a significant exacerbating factor for the relationship between hostile sexism and "she asked for it" rape myths across genders.

Do community females display a propensity towards sexual aggression? An empirical assessment of prevalence and psychological predictors

ABSTRACT Objective: Despite growing interest in female sexual offending, academic understanding of community females who display a propensity towards sexual aggression (PSA) is lacking. Method: Across three vignette studies, we recruited three independent samples of community females (Noverall = 555) to assess the prevalence of female PSA towards males. We also examined whether established risk factors associated with male PSA are valid predictors of female PSA. These included ambivalent sexist attitudes, inappropriate sexual interests, non-sexual aggression, impulsivity, male rape myth acceptance, and sexual preoccupation. Results: Across studies, findings showed that between 26.9% and 44.0% of participants did not emphatically reject an interest in adult male-directed PSA. Key predictors of participants’ non-zero endorsement included an interest in violent sexual activities, rape myth acceptance, and sexual preoccupation. Conclusions: Though lower than their male counterparts (see Bohner, G., Reinhard, M. A., Rutz, S., Sturm, S., Kerschbaum, B., & Effler, D. (1998). Rape myths as neutralizing cognitions: Evidence for a causal impact of anti-victim attitudes on men’s self-reported likelihood of raping. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28(2), 257–268), some community females self-report an interest in perpetrating male-directed sexual aggression. We discuss the implications of our findings on harm prevention efforts with females, alongside avenues for future research.

Rape Myth Acceptance by Police: An Underlying Cause for Rise in Number of Unreported Cases of Sexual Assault

Rape Myth Acceptance by Police: An Underlying Cause for Rise in Number of Unreported Cases of Sexual Assault

Comparing Rape Myth Acceptance Among Police Trainees and Medical Students: A Preliminary Danish Validation of the Updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale.

Identifying rape myths among criminal justice and medical professionals is central to preventing secondary victimization. We present the first preliminary Danish validation of McMahon and Farmer's updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance scale using samples of police and medical trainees. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses result in a 14-item, four-factor measure that demonstrates acceptable model fit, satisfactory convergent and discriminant validity, and good internal consistency. Although reported rape myth acceptance is generally low in both samples, some subscale scores vary across professional groups, thereby identifying specific targets for intervention in different occupational contexts. Further tests of the scale are recommended.

Preliminary evidence of promise of a sexual violence risk reduction intervention for female students in South African tertiary education institutions

ABSTRACT Campus sexual violence risk reduction and resistance interventions have been developed and tested among female students in the global North and proven effective. Evidence-based interventions to prevent sexual violence tested amongst female students in the global South and in South African campuses are lacking. We present preliminary evidence of promise of Ntombi Vimbela! (NV!), a sexual violence prevention intervention piloted amongst first year female students in eight purposively selected campuses in South Africa. Focus group discussions were conducted with 118 female students who participated in NV! workshops. Most students found the content of NV! relevant and reported having experienced its positive effects. They perceived that NV! empowered them with skills to assess and deal with sexual assault risky situations. NV! changed their attitudes and beliefs about gender, shifted their acceptance of rape myths and beliefs, improved communication skills, enhanced self-esteem, and confidence to defend oneself in risky sexual assault situations. Few participants were unsure whether they will be able to use the skill in real life. These findings indicate a range of short-term positive outcomes which we anticipate would reduce the risk of sexual assault among first year female students. This suggests that NV! should be subject to further evaluation.

Development and validation of the Rape Excusing Attitudes and Language Scale

Rape myth acceptance (RMA) is the acceptance of false beliefs, stereotypes, and statements about rape, victims, and perpetrators (Burt, 1980). Rape myths become outdated as we learn more about sexual violence. Therefore, psychometric scales should be updated periodically to reflect the more nuanced phenomenon of rape myth acceptance. Several items in the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale (IRMA; Payne et al., 1999; McMahon & Farmer, 2011) may measure knowledge about the rape perpetrator's psychology rather than rape myth acceptance. In current studies we developed and validated an updated rape myth acceptance scale called the Rape Excusing Attitudes and Language (REAL) Scale without items measuring knowledge about rape. Through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on two separate datasets (N = 663), the REAL Scale presents a four factor, 20-item scale. We provide evidence of validation through demonstrating the Scale's convergent and discriminative validity by correlating the REAL Scale with the IRMA and the Rape Victim Empathy Scale (RVES; Smith & Frieze, 2003). We argue that the REAL Scale should be adopted in future studies assessing rape myth acceptance because the items explain the same amount of variance in the RVES as the IRMA, but the REAL Scale displays more face validity.

Exploring Rape Myth Acceptance and Psychopathy as Predictors of Sexual Coercion

ABSTRACT Evidence suggests certain psychological traits and inaccurate cognitions or beliefs are important predictors of sexual coercion. While research has demonstrated that psychopathic traits are one of the best sexual aggression predictors, research has also shown the importance of rape myth acceptance as a predictor. Although both constructs have significant evidence supporting their predictive power with sexual coercion, some recent research has found that the relationship between rape myth acceptance and sexual coercive tactics was negated with the addition of psychopathy scores. The current study seeks to extend this previous researchby using a larger sample of college males (N = 481), different measures of rape myth acceptance and psychopathy, and both retrospective and prospective methods. The results of the current study partially support previous findings, but also demonstrate differences in the predictive utility of rape myth acceptance and psychopathy constructs in the prospective prediction. Both psychopathy, particularly callousness, and rape myth acceptance were significant predictors of the sample’s intention of using both verbal and illegal sexual coercive tactics.

Understanding Sexual Aggression in UK Male University Students: An Empirical Assessment of Prevalence and Psychological Risk Factors.

University-based sexual aggression is an international public health issue; however, to date, there have been no formal assessments of the prevalence or psychological indicators associated with the proabuse behaviors of the most common perpetrators at UK universities: heterosexual male students. To facilitate the development of effective primary prevention interventions for domestic students who have sexually harmed, we assess across two empirical studies (Ns = 259 and 295) the psychological risk factors associated with recent sexual aggression amongst two distinct samples of UK male university students. Cumulatively, results highlighted that one in nine participants (11.4%) self-reported recent sexual aggression. These participants could be statistically differentiated from their non-offending peers on various established indicators of general sexual offending, of which logistic regression analyses highlighted atypical sexual fantasies, general aggression, hostility toward women, and rape myth acceptance as being the most reliable predictors. Our data extend the international evidence base by providing the first detailed overview of sexual aggression amongst UK male university students, as well as the psychological risk factors associated with their proabuse behaviors. We discuss the importance of our findings for the development of more effective evidence-based reduction strategies and primary prevention interventions for male students who have sexually harmed.

Rape Myth Acceptance Buffers the Association Between Sexual Assault and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Among College Students.

Rape myths are cultural beliefs that invalidate, blame, and stigmatize rape survivors, thereby perpetuating sexual violence. Few studies have explored associations between rape myth acceptance (RMA) and mental health outcomes, but evidence suggests that RMA can buffer the mental health impact of some forms of sexual assault. The current study examined the buffering effect of RMA on depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms using self-report data from an online survey of 500 female college students. Findings provided support for the buffering effect of RMA on the association between any sexual assault and PTSD symptoms. Experiencing any sexual assault was significantly associated with greater PTSD symptoms among participants with low RMA, whereas this association was only marginally significant among those with high RMA. Findings demonstrate that there are some contexts in which high RMA might lessen the mental health impact of sexual assault. Thus, it is possible that as progress is made to dismantle rape myths in society, mental health symptoms amongst some survivors may exacerbate, thereby increasing the demand for mental health services.

“The Girl Who Cried Rape”: An Assessment of Rape Myths in the Moroccan Sociocultural Context

Empirical studies have unequivocally and consistently shown that rape myths are integral to the aetiology of sexual coercion and aggression. The present article reviews the literature on rape myth acceptance as an important risk factor in the sexual victimization of women and a precursor for a hostile social attitude towards victims of rape. Through the examination of the verbal reactions of the Moroccan public to the case of rape and torture of Khadija “the tattoo girl” (fata:t lwaʃm) on YouTube, it attempts to assess and debunk specific examples of rape myths present in the Moroccan sociocultural context. Discussion focuses on the social perception of female victims of sexual violence and the measurement and evaluation of its physical and psychological impact on them. Victims' emotional responses and psychic trauma constitute an important part of this discussion. Findings suggest the existence of immanently cultural rape myths, such as “the myth of the willing victim”, “it is impossible to rape a resisting woman”, and “women are prone to make false allegations”, along with deleterious victim-blaming cultural stereotypes, such as “she was asking for it”. Another noteworthy finding this paper presents is the social requirement of conspicuous "psychological/emotional harm" to legitimize the status of the victim.

Masculine contingency and rape myth acceptance in heterosexual men: Hope as a moderator?

Masculine contingency and rape myth acceptance in heterosexual men: Hope as a moderator?