Kenyan Rangelands Research Articles

Correction: Ocholla et al. Livestock Detection and Counting in Kenyan Rangelands Using Aerial Imagery and Deep Learning Techniques. Remote Sens. 2024, 16, 2929

The authors would like to make the following corrections to their published paper [...]

Livestock Detection and Counting in Kenyan Rangelands Using Aerial Imagery and Deep Learning Techniques

Accurate livestock counts are essential for effective pastureland management. High spatial resolution remote sensing, coupled with deep learning, has shown promising results in livestock detection. However, challenges persist, particularly when the targets are small and in a heterogeneous environment, such as those in African rangelands. This study evaluated nine state-of-the-art object detection models, four variants each from YOLOv5 and YOLOv8, and Faster R-CNN, for detecting cattle in 10 cm resolution aerial RGB imagery in Kenya. The experiment involved 1039 images with 9641 labels for training from sites with varying land cover characteristics. The trained models were evaluated on 277 images and 2642 labels in the test dataset, and their performance was compared using Precision, Recall, and Average Precision (AP0.5–0.95). The results indicated that reduced spatial resolution, dense shrub cover, and shadows diminish the model’s ability to distinguish cattle from the background. The YOLOv8m architecture achieved the best AP0.5–0.95 accuracy of 39.6% with Precision and Recall of 91.0% and 83.4%, respectively. Despite its superior performance, YOLOv8m had the highest counting error of −8%. By contrast, YOLOv5m with AP0.5–0.95 of 39.3% attained the most accurate cattle count with RMSE of 1.3 and R2 of 0.98 for variable cattle herd densities. These results highlight that a model with high AP0.5–0.95 detection accuracy may struggle with counting cattle accurately. Nevertheless, these findings suggest the potential to upscale aerial-imagery-trained object detection models to satellite imagery for conducting cattle censuses over large areas. In addition, accurate cattle counts will support sustainable pastureland management by ensuring stock numbers do not exceed the forage available for grazing, thereby mitigating overgrazing.

Utilizing Artificial Intelligence and Remote Sensing to Detect Prosopis juliflora Invasion: Environmental Drivers and Community Insights in Rangelands of Kenya.

The remarkable adaptability and rapid proliferation of Prosopis juliflora have led to its invasive status in the rangelands of Kenya, detrimentally impacting native vegetation and biodiversity. Exacerbated by human activities such as overgrazing, deforestation, and land degradation, these conditions make the spread and management of this species a critical ecological concern. This study assesses the effectiveness of artificial intelligence (AI) and remote sensing in monitoring the invasion of Prosopis juliflora in Baringo County, Kenya. We investigated the environmental drivers, including weather conditions, land cover, and biophysical attributes, that influence its distinction from native vegetation. By analyzing data on the presence and absence of Prosopis juliflora, coupled with datasets on weather, land cover, and elevation, we identified key factors facilitating its detection. Our findings highlight the Decision Tree/Random Forest classifier as the most effective, achieving a 95% accuracy rate in instance classification. Key variables such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for February, precipitation, land cover type, and elevation were significant in the accurate identification of Prosopis juliflora. Community insights reveal varied perspectives on the impact of Prosopis juliflora, with differing views based on professional experiences with the species. Integrating these technological advancements with local knowledge, this research contributes to developing sustainable management practices tailored to the unique ecological and social challenges posed by this invasive species. Our results highlight the contribution of advanced technologies for environmental management and conservation within rangeland ecosystems.

The Levels and Determinants of Profit Efficiency in Fodder Production: A Case of Southern Rangelands of Kenya

The Levels and Determinants of Profit Efficiency in Fodder Production: A Case of Southern Rangelands of Kenya

In-vitro digestibility and methane gas emission of indigenous and introduced grasses in the rangeland ecosystems of south eastern Kenya

Various grass species with high biomass yield and low moisture demand have been introduced in the rangelands of Kenya to realize increased ruminant productivity that could not be achieved with the low quality of the indigenous grasses. However, this intervention ignores the different methane emission of the indigenous and introduced grasses, a necessary consideration for realizing increased productivity while minimizing greenhouse gas emissions. This study determined in-vitro digestibility and methane emission of three indigenous grasses: Eragrostis superba (E. superba), Cenchrus ciliaris (C. ciliaris), Enteropogon macrostachyus (E. macrostachyus) and two introduced grasses (two varieties of Chloris gayana; Boma rhodes and Extozi rhodes. Samples of these five grasses (whole plant above ground) were collected from established pasture plots in South Eastern rangelands of Kenya. The grass samples were collected at bloom stage using one-meter square quadrats for proximate analysis and determination of neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent lignin (ADL) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) using AOAC (1990) methods. On average, relative to the indigenous grasses, the introduced grasses were higher in crude protein (74.05 g Kg-1 dry matter (DM) vs. 52.11 g Kg-1 DM), organic matter digestibility 62.7% vs 53.6%) and in NDF (712.7 g Kg-1 DM vs. 708.0 g Kg-1 DM), metabolizable energy (16.35 vs 12.90 MJ/kg DM), methane emission (25.61 ml vs 15.93 ml) but with lower in-vitro-dry matter digestibility 54.24% vs 58.12%. Methane production positively correlated with crude protein, NDF, metabolizable energy, ADF and in-vitro organic matter digestibility. Hence, utilizing the introduced grasses to boost cattle production would achieve increased productivity but a point of concern are the higher methane emissions, not to mention the ecosystem change caused by the introduction of new species, which should affect the sustainability of the rangeland ecosystem.

Greenhouse gas emissions from sheep excreta deposited onto tropical pastures in Kenya

To improve the estimate of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) from tropical rangelands in sub-Saharan Africa, we measured GHG emissions from sheep excreta over two periods of 51 days on a Kenya rangeland. In addition, we measured GHG emissions from potential hotspots in the landscape linked to sheep grazing: overnight enclosures (“bomas”), where sheep are kept at night to protect them from theft and predators, the areas surrounding sheep bomas, and areas surrounding watering troughs. Results showed a short pulse of CO2 fluxes after sheep urine application and a rapid increase of CH4 fluxes following sheep dung application in both rainy and dry season. However, only small increases of N2O fluxes were observed after dung and urine applications compared to controls without excreta. Elevated N2O fluxes mainly coincided with heavy rainfall. Overall, N2O emission factors (EFs) did not vary across excreta type or seasons, but mean N2O EFs for dung (0.01%) and urine patches (0.02%) were only one tenth of the default EFs from the 2019 IPCC Refinement for dry climate. We did, however, find that bomas and watering troughs are sites of herd concentration that are important sources of GHG emissions in the landscape, and that emissions in these locations can remain elevated for months to years, especially when soil moisture is high. This study contributes to more robust estimates of GHG emissions from African livestock systems, which are fundamental to develop targeted mitigation strategies.

Preferential Use of Sahiwal Bull Calves by Beneficiaries of Assisted Reproductive Technologies in Southern Rangelands of Kenya

Bull service is the most common insemination method in pastoral herds grazing in the rangelands. To accelerate multiplication and distribution of and access to high quality Sahiwal genetics to pastoral communities, development agencies have promoted the use of Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ARTs) in the Kenyan rangelands. However, sustainable use of ARTs is uncertain because pastoral herd owners attach high value to bull calves of high genetic merits for breeding, which is a potential barrier to technology adoption. This study assessed preferential use of ART- bull calves among beneficiaries of the Sahiwal cattle upgrading breeding program that were utilizing OvSynch and TAI protocol in the southern rangelands of Kenya. Preferential use of bull calves was assessed in a choice experiment basing on attributes associated with potential use of bull calves. Overall, the first-choice preference was to retain the bull calves for future breeding (54%) compared to immediate selling for income (44%). This was the first-choice of pastoralists and agro pastoralists preferred unlike ranchers who preferred selling bull calves for income compared to retaining for future breeding (80% versus 20%). The preference of retaining bull calves for future breeding was higher among women compared to male respondents (59% versus 51%). Second choice preferences were sales for income (58%), breeding (29%), draft power (5%), meat production and cultural practices (3% each) and prestige (2%). Socioeconomic factors had no significant influence on preferential use of ARTs bull calves. The results indicate that high genetic merit bull calves are preferred for breeding, implying that bull calves would be retained within the pastoral herds for bull service. This presents a possible barrier to adoption of ARTs in pastoral herds for upgrading of Sahiwal cattle breed. Policy direction need to invest in Sahiwal multiplication and distribution of bull calves to pastoralists and agro pastoralists. Ranchers have low preference for retaining bull calves for breeding, so it would be best to capacitate them to invest in ARTs to multiply breeding bulls and supply to pastoralists and agro pastoralists.

The frontier on the doorstep: development and conflict dynamics in the southern rangelands of Kenya

ABSTRACT Rural parts of Kenya are undergoing or are expected to undergo massive social-ecological change as a result of the government’s ambitious development agenda driven by infrastructure and extraction. The pastoralist rangelands near the dormant Mount Suswa volcano in Narok, Kajiado and Nakuru counties have witnessed the creation of a modern railway and a geothermal project, and plans for further geothermal developments are expected together with a large inland port and industrial park. Other scholars identify structural, discursive, organisational and directly violent frontier characteristics which occur at the interface of two social orders and are well recognised in parts of northern Kenya. This article considers how these phenomena play out in a frontier inhabited by marginalised pastoralists but ‘on the doorstep’ of Nairobi and other urban centres. It concludes that most frontier phenomena are also present in marginalised areas closer to the centre and as such, the frontier is not necessarily geographically determined. However, formations of violence and dynamics of policing are different to the north and proximity to the economic and political centre makes a difference, allowing the state to remain more in control.

Policy recommendations for promoting the viability of hay production in the arid rangelands of Kenya

Hay production in arid and semi-arid areas of Kenya is a flagship program under drought risk reduction and climate change adaptation strategies like the Kenya Climate Smart Agricultural Project, the Agricultural Sector Transformation and Growth Strategy, and the Range Management and Pastoralism Strategy. In Kajiado County, the roll-out of the hay production flagship program began in 2018 without precise data on the financial viability of producing hay as a private enterprise. To inform the implementation of the hay flagship project, planners need a cost-benefit analysis of the hay enterprise and the challenges around hay production. The study undertook a literature review, a knowledge, attitude, and practice survey on 354 pastoralists, and a cost-benefit analysis of 23 hay-growing farms in Kajiado Central, Ololiloi and Mashuru sub-counties. The findings showed that proximity to hay farms and availability of hay resulted in livestock keepers increasing the hay fed to their livestock from 23 % to 62 % during the droughts of 2015 and 2017, respectively. However, 35 % of the hay farms having less than 90 acres and 8 % of the hay farms producing less than 4,250 hay bales (15 kgs per bag) were not profitable. Despite only two farms of over 400 acres accounting for 73 % of all hay production, they need more tangible support from the government. Furthermore, farms owning machinery and irrigation facilities were unprofitable, while rain-fed farms hiring machinery were profitable after three years. Other factors affecting profitability were cropping practices, herder-farmer conflicts, hazards like fires, and capital expenditure like building hay stores and purchasing irrigation equipment. Decision-makers need to address the inadequate seasonal hay market worsened by pastoralists' hay-buying behaviour, which was 86 % influenced by animal deaths at the peak of the drought. This paper recommends actionable policy frameworks to establish public-private-producer partnerships, promote stable markets, set up strategic hay reserves, promote low-technology production methods, and train commercial hay producers. In addition, policies should encourage pastoralists to diversify their livestock feeding options during droughts and use hay vouchers for drought response. Furthermore, the policy frameworks should be expanded to provide cash subsidies to hay farmers, address the high costs of machinery and promote drought-based insurance policies. Key words: hay, drought, cost-benefit analysis, climate-smart agriculture, pastoralists, livestock

Mortality in Galla Goat Production System in Southern Rangelands of Kenya: Levels and Predictors

Herd health and adaptability are of concern in animal production in the tropics because of the persistent exposure to multiple stresses of low quality and quantity feeds, heat stress, high disease, and parasite incidences, poor husbandry, and breeding practices; the combined effects of these factors is high livestock mortality. High health-related mortality has been frequently reported as the major impediment to livestock production and thus the aim of this article is to investigate the vital infectious diseases and non-infectious factors that account for the majority of deaths which is crucial in determining mortality control strategies. The study applies a descriptive, Kaplan-Meier method, and truncated regression analysis using an eight-year retrospective data spanning from 2014 to 2021 was applied for this analysis. The results indicate infectious diseases as the most important cause of Galla goat mortality. The mean monthly and annual mortality rates are higher and the pre-weaning mortality of Galla goat appeared to be one of the major constraints hampering the development of replacement stock. The risk factors considered for high mortality were the age and sex of the kids. Among the infectious diseases analyzed, bacterial, parasitic, and non-specific infectious diseases were identified as the important causes of Galla goat mortality, while the non-infectious conditions included malnutrition and thermal/cold shock. The analysis provided an improved insight into animal-health-related factors which once addressed could reduce mortality and hence optimize animal husbandry performance in Galla goat production systems. Interventions in Galla goat health and husbandry are recommended to control kids' mortality.

Wide-scale subdivision and fencing of southern Kenyan rangelands jeopardizes biodiversity conservation and pastoral livelihoods: Demonstration of utility of open-access landDX database

Globally, rangelands are undergoing rapid social-ecological changes, yet the scale of these changes is rarely measured. Fencing, sedentarization, and land conversion limit access by wildlife and livestock to vital resources such as water and seasonal forage, leading to rangeland degradation. In addition, these changes limit connectivity between wildlife sub-populations, triggering a spiral of decreasing biodiversity and weakening ecosystem function. Moreover, the combination of land privatization, sedentarization and fencing endangers pastoral livelihoods by reducing resilience to drought and diminishing livestock holdings per person. We provide a unique, urgent, and vital snapshot across >30,000 km2 of southern Kenya’s rangeland, covering four ecosystems renowned for their rich megafauna and pastoral people. We document and explore the drivers of extensive fencing (~40,000 km), the proliferation of livestock enclosures (>27,000), and the conversion of rangelands for cultivation (~1,500 km2). Our analyses were based on an open-access database recently synthesized for the region. Fencing is generally more prolific in areas that have been converted from community tenure to private title, especially where land values are raised by agricultural potential and proximity to Kenya’s capital, Nairobi. These factors drive the transfer of land ownership from traditional pastoralists to speculators, eventually resulting in the transformation of rangeland into agricultural, industrial and urban land uses. Space for wildlife (and traditional pastoralism) is limited on private, subdivided land, where livestock enclosures are at their highest density, and where there is less unfenced land and less untransformed land, compared to conservation areas and pastoral commons. Conflicting planning incentives, policies, and economic forces are driving unsustainable and potentially irreversible social-ecological transitions over unprecedented spatial scales. The lesson from southern Kenya is that a range of financial, policy and governance-related interventions are required to allow people and nature to coexist sustainably in African savannas.

Exploring the distribution of soil properties across an open-grazed pastoral system in Laikipia rangelands, Kenya

Laikipia rangelands in Kenya are among the most productive ecosystems but there is concern that the traditional free grazing regimes may accelerate soil and vegetation deterioration. We investigated the distribution of soil properties in the rangelands of Ilmotiok ranch in Laikipia County where grazing is predominantly open or free and examined selected soil chemical properties and particle size distribution in three types of habitats (tree, grass and bare ground) along four transects, placed diagonally across hillslope positions. We focused our study on the hypotheses that habitat types and hillslope position had an effect on soil properties distribution along the profile. Along each identified transect, soil samples were collected at four depths 0–10, 10–20, 20–30 and 30–40 cm. Distribution of soil properties mainly carbon, total nitrogen and phosphorus were influenced by hillslope position and habitat type and their contents decreased gradually with soil depth. Soil organic carbon content was high in tree habitats while in grass habitats average total phosphorus content in the profiles was slightly lower than in tree habitats. Total soil nitrogen was highest in the footslope in the tree and grass habitat and ranged between 0.81−2.17 g/kg and 1.26−2.50 g/kg, respectively. Sand was the dominant grain size fraction which accounted for 50−88%. This study demonstrated that there are soil fertility differences in the rangelands caused by vegetation cover and hillslope positions which are particularly important for future agro-pastoral use decisions.

Deriving scalable measures for restoration of communal grazing lands

Participatory action research in communal grazing lands can inform end users on cost-effective methods for restoring land to improve local livelihoods and environmental quality in terms of reduced degradation and enhanced ecosystem services. A multi-stakeholder process involving producers, development practitioners, and researchers is demonstrated for conducting action research to restore degraded communal grazing lands in East Africa. Producer-managed trials provided actionable evidence on brief resting durations and reseeding in pastoral rangelands in Kenya, and on improved forages and weeding in grazing exclosures in the Ethiopian highlands. The usefulness of this evidence is demonstrated through quantitative data and stated or revealed preferences of livestock producers. Local land management institutions and government and civil society practitioners confirmed the utility of the results to land management practice and policy, while spontaneous local up-scaling of improved forages in exclosures affirmed their scalability. These results are attributable to elements of the action research process, including prioritization of practical producer needs, close involvement of local institutions able to take action, collaborative design of producer-managed trials, and generation of evidence applicable in scaling. Among the restoration options tested, those more successful in trials and preferred by producers tended to have moderate (or low) costs, complexity, time to returns, and risk, suggesting possible optimization of trade-offs among options, such as between the potential performance of an option and its risk. Robust options that balance consistency with effectiveness may be good candidates for scaling. In communal grazing lands facing varied constraints to restoration, using research methodology responsive to institutional stakeholders at and above local level is an effective strategy for deriving scalable restoration approaches for win-win gains in livelihoods and the environment.

Willingness to pay for assisted reproductive technologies by pastoral herd owners in southern Rangelands of Kenya

Willingness to pay for assisted reproductive technologies by pastoral herd owners in southern Rangelands of Kenya

Unconditional factor demands and supply response for livestock products: A farm-level analysis of the Southern Rangelands of Kenya

This paper evaluates output supply and input factor demands for livestock products in the Southern rangelands of Kenya. A flexible translog profit function that permits the application of the primal approach to the output supply and factor demand analysis was estimated using household-level data. The results indicate that the own-price elasticities of supply for cattle, sheep and goats were all positive. The own-price elasticities for the supply of sheep and goat products were elastic, while the own-price elasticities for the supply of cattle products wasinelastic. Cross-price and scale elasticities were found to be within the inelastic range in all cases, with goat production complementing both cattle and sheep production. All factor input demand elasticities for cattle, sheep and goats had the expected negative sign and were inelastic. These results offer a valuable opportunity for the development of pro-pastoral price policies that reduce factor market imperfections and thus enhance livestock productivity in the rangelands of Kenya.

Camels and cattle respond differently in milk phenol excretion and milk fatty acid profile to free ranging conditions in East-African rangelands

Camels are getting increasingly important for pastoral livestock systems in arid and semi-arid rangelands of East Africa that are adversely affected by climate change. Cattle are more susceptible to drought than camels and rely on grass, while camels are primarily browsers. Diet selection can influence the quality of the milk, especially of the milk fat. Little is known about differences in milk fatty acid profile of camels compared to cattle, especially under free-grazing conditions. Camels and two cattle types were compared on Kenyan rangelands in a rainy season and a transition period. Seventy-two lactating animals (12 per animal type per season each) were used. Half of each group received a urea-molasses supplement at night. Intakes of nutrients and phenols were estimated through scan sampling. Milk was collected at the end of each season and analyzed for phenols and fatty acids. Phenol intakes varied between seasons in cattle but not in camels. Different from animal type, season had an effect on milk phenol concentration. Phenol excretion with the milk of cattle correlated with phenol intake. Proportions of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids were higher in camel milk than cattle milk. Cattle milk contained more conjugated linoleic acids than camel milk in the rainy season. Proportions of oleic, linoleic, α-linolenic and eicosapentaenoic acid were higher, whereas n-6-to-n-3 fatty acid ratio was lower in camel milk than cattle milk. Camels may have developed control mechanisms limiting adverse effects and transfer of phenols to milk in response to their higher intake of phenol-rich browse. In conclusion, camel milk seems to be more beneficial for human health and nutrition than cattle milk by its characteristic fatty acid profile. This can be another motivation for switching from cattle to camels in arid/semi-arid areas affected by climate change.

Phenology of short vegetation cycles in a Kenyan rangeland from PlanetScope and Sentinel-2

The short revisit times afforded by recently-deployed optical satellite sensors that acquire 3–30 m resolution imagery provide new opportunities to study seasonal vegetation dynamics. Previous studies demonstrated a successful retrieval of phenology with Sentinel-2 for relatively stable annual growing seasons. In semi-arid East Africa however, vegetation responds rapidly to a concentration of rainfall over short periods and consequently is subject to strong interannual variability. Obtaining a sufficient density of cloud-free acquisitions to accurately describe these short vegetation cycles is therefore challenging. The objective of this study is to evaluate if data from two satellite constellations, i.e., PlanetScope (3 m resolution) and Sentinel-2 (10 m resolution), each independently allow for accurate mapping of vegetation phenology under these challenging conditions. The study area is a rangeland with bimodal seasonality located at the 128-km2 Kapiti Farm in Machakos County, Kenya. Using all the available PlanetScope and Sentinel-2 imagery between March 2017 and February 2019, we derived temporal NDVI profiles and fitted double hyperbolic tangent models (equivalent to commonly-used logistic functions), separately for the two rainy seasons locally referred to as the short and long rains. We estimated start- and end-of-season for the series using a 50% threshold between minimum and maximum levels of the modelled time series (SOS50/EOS50). We compared our estimates against those obtained from vegetation index series from two alternative sources, i.e. a) greenness chromatic coordinate (GCC) series obtained from digital repeat photography, and b) MODIS NDVI. We found that both PlanetScope and Sentinel-2 series resulted in acceptable retrievals of phenology (RMSD of ~8 days for SOS50 and ~15 days for EOS50 when compared against GCC series) suggesting that the sensors individually provide sufficient temporal detail. However, when applying the model to the entire study area, fewer spatial artefacts occurred in the PlanetScope results. This could be explained by the higher observation frequency of PlanetScope, which becomes critical during periods of persistent cloud cover. We further illustrated that PlanetScope series could differentiate the phenology of individual trees from grassland surroundings, whereby tree green-up was found to be both earlier and later than for grass, depending on location. The spatially-detailed phenology retrievals, as achieved in this study, are expected to help in better understanding climate and degradation impacts on rangeland vegetation, particularly for heterogeneous rangeland systems with large interannual variability in phenology and productivity.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of wild herbivore species richness and occupancy across a savannah rangeland: Implications for conservation

Private lands are critical for maintaining biodiversity beyond protected areas. Across Kenyan rangelands, wild herbivores frequently coexist with people and their livestock. Human population and livestock numbers are projected to increase dramatically over the coming decades. Therefore, a better understanding of wildlife-livestock interactions and their consequences for biodiversity conservation on private lands is needed. We used a Bayesian hierarchical, multi-species and multi-year occupancy model on aerial survey data of 15 wild-herbivore species, spanning 15 years (2001–2016) to investigate a) spatiotemporal trends in species occurrence and richness across a mosaic of properties with different land uses in Laikipia County, central Kenya; and b) the effects of distance to water, vegetation and livestock relative abundance on species occurrence and richness. Although mean herbivore species richness varied little over time, we observed high spatial variation in species occurrence across Laikipia, mainly driven by negative effects of high livestock relative abundance. As expected, ‘wildlife friendly’ properties had higher herbivore species richness than other areas. However, high variability suggests that some pastoral properties support rich herbivore communities. The area occupied by five species with global conservation concerns (reticulated giraffe, Grevy's zebra, Beisa Oryx, Defassa waterbuck and gerenuk) and for which Laikipia County is one of the last refuges was <50% across years. We conclude that ‘wildlife friendly’ properties remain crucial for conservation, although some pastoralist areas offer suitable habitats for wild herbivores. Effective management of stocking rates is critical for maintaining ecosystems able to sustain livestock and wildlife on private lands, ensuring protection for endangered species.

Avian and Habitat Diversity in the Semi-Arid Lands of Baringo South, Kenya

Semi-arid wooded-shrublands are important and critical habitats that provide breeding and feeding grounds for a variety of bird species, some of which are endangered, vulnerable or threatened with extinction. Habitat type and size influence abundance and diversity of birds globally and particularly in developing countries that are characterized by rapid human population growth and haphazard urban, agricultural and industrial development. The objective of this study was to assess avian and habitat diversity at Chemeron, a semi-arid land in the northern rangelands of Kenya. The study was guided by four questions: What kind of Habitat types are present at Chemeron study area? What kind of birds are found at Chemeron area? What is the conservation status of birds found at Chemeron area? What are the functional feeding guilds of birds that are found in the study area? How does the habitat type influence bird species abundance and diversity at Chemeron? Four 2-km long transects radiating from a central point within the study area were selected for a ground survey of birds that was conducted on foot. The surveys were conducted between 06:30 and 09:30 and 16:00 and 18:00 from October 2019 to April 2020. Bird species were observed and identified to the species level using high-resolution binoculars, field guidebooks and available taxonomic keys. Our surveys documented two main habitat types: Acacia-Balanites-Boscia woodlands dominated by Acacia senegal, Acacia mellifera, Acacia nilotica, Boscia angustifolia, and Balanites aegyptica. The second kind of habitat consisted of the invasive Acalypha fruticosa and Indigofera arrecta with Acacia reficiens-Acacia brevispica overstorey. A total of 53 bird species were sighted and identified the vulnerable Yellow necked spurfowl (Francolinus leucoscepus). Seventy-nine percent of the birds were sighted as singles or in pairs except for the gregarious white browed sparrow weaver (Plocepasser mahali), Apus caffer, Numida meleagris, Streptopelia senegalensis, Dinemellia dinemelli and Corythaxoides leucogaster. Significant differences in the various species diversity indices among the six transects were observed (p < 0.05). Approximately 60% of the birds belong to the insectivorous and omnivorous feeding guild. Charcoal burning and uncontrolled harvesting of wood are the major threats to the avian habitats in the study area. The high diversity of bird species in the study area can be attributed to the varied diversity of habitats that provide feeding, nesting, refuge and breeding grounds for the birds. From the foregoing findings, we can conclude that the ASALs of Baringo South offer ample habitat for a large number of bird species including the vulnerable Yellow necked spurfowl. The variations in various bird diversity indices can be attributed to the observed heterogeneity of habitats in the study area. We recommend wise use of rangeland resources and protection of critical avian habitats within the ASALs. Efforts should be geared towards livelihoods diversification and empowerment of the Lake Bogoria communities. This will reduce the pressure on the wooded shrublands that is widespread in the study area.

Application of MODIS NDVI for Monitoring Kenyan Rangelands Through a Web Based Decision Support Tool

The Kenyan rangelands contribute significantly to the country’s GDP through livestock production and tourism. With dependence on rain-fed pastures, climate variability coupled with human induced factors such as overgrazing have adversely affected the rangeland ecosystems. And while indigenous communities and conservation experts already use their knowledge of the landscape to make decisions, this information is usually localized. Earth observation imagery provides a bigger picture that can complement indigenous knowledge and improve decision making. This research leverages on data from the MODIS receiver located at the Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development(RCMRD) to develop the indices for the web-based Rangelands Decision Support Tool(RDST) . The tool automates data processing and provides an easy to use interface for accessing indices for rangeland monitoring. MODIS Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), anomalies and deviation indices are provided on the tool at decadal, monthly and seasonal time steps .Users begin their assessments by selecting their monitoring units and an NDVI index that responds to their specific questions. These questions respond to assessing current conditions, monitoring trends and changes in vegetation, and evaluating proxies for drought conditions . The information can then be overlaid with other ancillary data sets (roads, water sources, invasive species, protected areas, conflict areas), for context. At the click of a button, the information can be downloaded as a map for further analysis or application in sub regional decision making. Information generated by the tool are being used decision making tool by rangeland managers and county officers. Specifically, to inform adjustments to existing grazing plans, managing movement of livestock from designated grazing areas in wet and dry season, monitoring the success of rehabilitation efforts and resilience of the rangeland ecosystems, monitoring drought, managing scarce water resources and monitoring the spread of invasive species. Successful implementation and application for decision making has relied heavily on local indigenous knowledge and capacity building on use of the earth observation indices. The SERVIR project service planning engagement approach was used in engagements with stakeholders. This improved their participation in co-development of the tool and indices; and in adoption of the tools for decision making.