Range In Poland Research Articles

Materiały do brioflory Polski północno-wschodniej. Mchy i wątrobowce rezerwatu Surażkowo (Puszcza Knyszyńska)

The study presents data on the bryoflora of the Surażkowo nature reserve. The reserve, is part of the Knyszyńska Forest located in the North Podlasie Lowland (north-eastern Poland). In, the study, 95 species with one variety of mosses and 23 liverworts species were noted. The occurrence, of all species is briefly described. In recorded species, 40 bryophytes species are protected, and 17 species are new to the Knyszyńska Forest. The Surażkowo nature reserve is characterized, by a significant share of the indicator taxa of old forests. In the most interesting recorded species, include Fuscocephaloziopsis catenulata, Porella platyphylla, Dicranum majus – bryophytes, regionally rare and never previously recorded from the Knyszyńska Forest and Orthotrichum pulchellum, – noted the easternmost in its range in Poland

Some aspects of the methodological approach in the progeny testing of European larch in Poland

Abstract In Poland, the tree improvement programme was initiated in 2004, but the trials for European larch (Larix decidua Mill.) did not start until 2021. Our aim is to present certain aspects of the methodological approach of progeny testing for this species. The European larch, known for its rapid growth among native coniferous trees in Europe, holds great promise for forest breeding. Unfortunately, its natural range in Poland is limited, with rare but well-known valuable provenances. In 2023, six progeny tests were established using the same 130 open-pollinated families, derived from plus trees originating from valuable seed regions (Md51, Md61, Md71) and areas below 52° N latitude. After a decade of growth, the results will be used to identify valuable genotypes and establish advanced-generation seed orchards.

The European mantis Mantis religiosa (Linnaeus, 1758) (Mantodea: Mantidae) in Poland – the present status and changes in range

This paper presents the past and present occurrence of Mantis religiosa in Poland and discusses range changes of this species during the last 100 years (1923–2021), based on 2664 records, 2029 of these unpublished. Up to 1994, the species was restricted to a relatively small area in the south-eastern part of Poland (3.3% of the country's area). During 27 years (1995–2021), M. religiosa spread from there to the north, west and south, increasing its range more than 20 times, to 77% of Poland’s area. At present, only north-western part of the country and central part of mountainous belt in the south are not occupied or sparsely occupied by this species. The average annual increase in European mantis range in Poland in the years 2013–2021 was eight times faster than during the earlier period (1995–2012).

АДАПТАЦИИ ВИДА К ОБИТАНИЮ НА ПЕРИФЕРИИ АРЕАЛА: ОБЗОР ОСОБЕННОСТЕЙ БИОЛОГИИ ПОЛЧКА (GLIS GLIS LINNAEUS, 1766) В САМОЙ ВОСТОЧНОЙ ПОПУЛЯЦИИ

Marked peculiarities in the biology of a species that may be observed, possibly regardless of genetic changes, on the periphery of the species habitat may provide for species survival under extreme conditions. The same may be relevant to populations that are isolated, marginal, or remote from the main distribution range of a species. With this in mind, several biological features of the edible dormouse were studied. This rodent species features a vast distribution range in Europe and partly in Asia. Differentiation into subspecies is mostly not observed within the range. This allows comparing the biology of a single species over significantly distant areas. The range of biotope preferences of the dormice on the periphery of their distribution is wider than in the central areas. In the former cases, these rodents were found in forests featuring a significant proportion of birch and aspen in the forest stand. These observations are similar to those on the northern boundary of the dormouse distribution range in Poland and Lithuania. Some specific features of the diet of the species are associated with these habitats. In the Zhiguli Mts. (Russia) and Lithuania, the main diet includes birch seeds. At the same time, fruits and berries, which are of major importance in the other parts of dormice distribution range, are completely absent among the juicy forages. These differences probably underlie the development of a unique mechanism of reproduction control, which is not observed in other mammalian species. On the periphery of the distribution range, the number of sources of the basic forages for the highly specialized species under study is increased compared to the rest of the distribution area, and the reproductive activity of dormice is annual. However, upon the absence of a sufficient amount of the high-calorie food, mass embryonic resorption in most of females occurs. In addition, in the easternmost population, a higher territoriality is featured by females rearing offspring, and the phenomenon of communal nesting by related females is not observed. To confirm whether the genetic or environmental factors are at the base of the biological features described, large-scale population genetic studies are warranted. At the present stage, field studies allow tracing analogous features in other parts of the species habitat and thus help illustrating the ecological plasticity of the oligophagous species under suboptimal conditions.

PROPOZYCJA MONITORINGU RZĘSORKA RZECZKA (NEOMYS FODIENS, PENNANT, 1771) W POLSCE

The paper presents a proposal of methods for monitoring the Eurasian water shrew Neomys fodiens, belonging to the family Soricidae. This species has a wide range in Poland, although it has never been the subject of a nationwide survey. Water shrew has a sporadic and localised occurrence and little is known about its habitat requirements and population dynamics. Although there is no documented proof of population decline, there is concern that the species may be vulnerable to declines in abundance and occurrence as a result of habitat loss and pollution as it is closely associated with aquatic environment. The proposed method of population status assessment is based on estimating the number of specimen observed at selected monitoring sites by the capture-mark-recapture (CMR) method and an additional method of analysing owl pellets to establish the presence and abundance of the species in the area. Moreover, indicators assessing the condition of the habitat, such as presence of preferred water bodies, share of shoreline vegetation, slope of the shore and availability of shelters have been proposed. Regular monitoring can contribute to the recognition of potential changes in water shrew’s population dynamics.

The first record of a maternity colony of Kuhl’s pipistrelle Pipistrellus kuhlii (Chiroptera) in Poland

For four decades, there have been changes in the ranges of many bat species in Europe, particularly shifts in their northern limits. This phenomenon is more spectacular for migratory species than sedentary ones, especially for representatives of the genera Pipistrellus and Hypsugo. Kuhl’s pipistrelle Pipistrellus kuhlii (Kuhl, 1817) is the one of western Palaearctic bat species with conspicuous range expansion—in the last three decades, the species has rapidly expanded and colonised new territories both northwards and westwards. In Central Europe, two genetic lineages occur that are also quite different morphologically: P. kuhlii kuhlii (hereafter P. kuhlii) and P. kuhlii lepidus (hereafter P. lepidus). The contact zone between these two lineages passes through Hungary and Slovakia, although the real range of distinct lineages and/or morphotypes are still unclear. The first records of P. kuhlii from Poland (probably belonging to P. lepidus) come from Warszawa, central Poland (2004) and Zawiercie, southern Poland (2005): both specimens were males, found in December in buildings. Since then, there have been further reports of the presence of this species in Poland—occurring mostly in large cities along the valleys of large rivers such as the Wisła and Bug, from both periods of activity and hibernation. In subsequent years in Poland the occurrence of only P. lepidus has been confirmed, while P. kuhlii has been recorded from southern locations in the Carpathian Mountains in Slovakia. This paper describes the first record of this species from Poland, further indicating the existence of a maternity colony. In mid-July of 2020, a non-volant juvenile male was found in Kraków, Krowodrza district (50°04'11.7" N, 19°54'55.9" E). Initially poorly visible diagnostic features have become unambiguous with development and similar to those in P. kuhlii: narrow pale wing margin and orange penis colouration. After about two months in captivity, a mature individual capable of flying was released at the site where it was found. The presence of a maternity colony indicates that this species (i) has been part of the Polish fauna for several years, and (ii) its range in Poland possibly expands much further north.

Abundance changes in orb-weaver spider communities at the edge of the Argiope bruennichi expansion range.

Expanding range is an inherent feature of any species and may be caused by climate change, destruction or other change of habitat, or lack of natural enemies. In a new habitat the species may be neutral, or as predator it can displace related species through competition. A strong expansion to northern Europe was observed in the thermophilous spider species Argiope bruennichi. The species doubled its range in Poland during the 1990s and its impact on native species was not investigated so far. In this article, the results of studies about A. bruennichi number (density) and its contribution in orb-weaver spider communities are analysed. We also try to determine the impact of newly occurring species on the local araneofauna.

Proposed migration corridors for large mammals in the south-east of Polish Carpathians

The aim of the study was the delineation of migratory corridors migration for large mammals between the Ukrainian Carpathians and the western part of their range in Poland. Potential corridors for the wolf (Canis lupus), brown bear (Ursus arctos), lynx (Lynx lynx), wisent (Bison bonasus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and wild boar (Sus scrofa) were identified within 534,818 ha with the ArcGIS Corridor Designer software. Corridors of regional importance (42,283 ha in total) and local connections between habitat patches (13,154 ha) were delineated separately according to the least-cost path criterion. We identified 115 critical points where heavy traffic, or the proximity of settlements, could obstruct animal movements. A considerable number of such critical points indicate the urgency for ensuring the functionality of the remaining linkage. The permeability of barriers between habitat patches was determined by ground observations, confirming the presence of target species. The highest proportion of patches estimated by experts as optimal and suboptimal was for wild boar (91%), while the lowest for lynx (52%). The proportion of habitats avoided or useless due to anthropogenic barriers was 34% for lynx, 25% for wisents, and 19% for brown bears.

The Morphological Features and Biology of a Relict and Endangered Woody Plant Species: Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.) Moench (Ericaceae).

Chamaedaphne calyculata (L.) Moench is a rare post-glacial relic, which reaches the south-western boundary of its European range in Poland. However, little is known about the morphology and biology of this species. In this study a biometric analysis of assimilating leaves and general morphological appearance was carried out; flowering, fruiting, and seed production in a natural site were described and the ability of seed germination was determined after varied seed storage time at 0–2, 2–4, 6–8, and 21–23 °C. A quite large intrapopulation variability was found as regards the features under analysis. The most varied features included the length of the petiole, followed by the leaf blade area, while the length to the width of the leaf blade was the least varied feature. C. calyculata flowered abundantly and about 50% developed flowers turned into fruits. On average there were 56 seeds per fruit with a predominance of mature seeds. The length of the seed storage time had a significant effect on all parameters of the germination process. The temperature at which the seeds were stored, apart from the time to maximum germination parameter, had a significant effect on other parameters of the germination process. Interactions between the seeds storage time and temperature factors were observed only for germination percentage, germination index, and germination index rate parameters. The ability of seeds to germinate, non-creation of the seed bank and other results of the research provide new information necessary for planning and carrying out conservation procedures (including active conservation in ex situ conditions).

Genetic diversity of ranch and feral American mink (Neovison vison Schreber, 1777) in Poland in relation to the natural population of the species

In Poland, the number of feral mink (Neovison vison) and the size of the fur-farming industry are growing. There is a concern that the gene pool of the wild living mink is being infiltrated by that of ranch animals. Three populations were analyzed: Polish ranch mink, feral animals from Poland, and, they were for the first time in Poland, compared with wild individuals from North America. The breeding history of the species and the main ways of introducing the American mink into new areas on different continents were considered. The final research included analysis of the polymorphism of 12 Mustelidae-specific microsatellite loci. It showed a similar level of genetic diversity in all the investigated populations. The research revealed the existence of geographically-specific subpopulations of feral mink in Poland, characterized by different origins, and indicated a small degree of introgression between Polish ranch and wild living populations in the past although the assignment simulation makes it clear that they are genetically distinct groups. The results are in accordance with previously reported models of colonization of Poland by this species and help to explain the influence of anthropogenic factors on the current status of this invasive species. Mixing of two separate genetic pools from the native range in Poland is a newly identified factor, shaping the genetic structure of ranch and feral populations of Neovison vison.

'Candidatus Aquirickettsiella gammari' (Gammaproteobacteria: Legionellales: Coxiellaceae): A bacterial pathogen of the freshwater crustacean Gammarus fossarum (Malacostraca: Amphipoda).

Invasive and non-native species can pose risks to vulnerable ecosystems by co-introducing bacterial pathogens. Alternatively, co-introduced bacterial pathogens may regulate invasive population size and invasive traits. We describe a novel candidate genus and species of bacteria ('Candidatus Aquirickettsiella gammari') found to infect Gammarus fossarum, from its native range in Poland. The bacterium develops intracellularly within the haemocytes and cells of the musculature, hepatopancreas, connective tissues, nervous system and gonad of the host. The developmental cycle of 'Candidatus Aquirickettsiella gammari' includes an elementary body (496.73 nm ± 37.56 nm in length, and 176.89 nm ± 36.29 nm in width), an elliptical, condensed spherical stage (737.61 nm ± 44.51 nm in length and 300.07 nm ± 44.02 nm in width), a divisional stage, and a spherical initial body (1397.59 nm ± 21.26 nm in diameter). We provide a partial genome for 'Candidatus Aquirickettsiella gammari', which clades phylogenetically alongside environmental 16S rRNA sequences from aquatic habitats, and bacterial symbionts from aquatic isopods (Asellus aquaticus), grouping separately from the Rickettsiella, a genus that includes bacterial pathogens of terrestrial insects and isopods. Increased understanding of the diversity of symbionts carried by G. fossarum identifies those that might regulate host population size, or those that could pose a risk to native species in the invasive range. Identification of 'Candidatus Aquirickettsiella gammari' and its potential for adaptation as a biological control agent is explored.

Long-term growth performance and productivity of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) populations

The phenotypic differentiation of 16 provenances of Scots pine originating from a wide variety of habitats that range from lowland to southern highland locations in Poland was assessed during 47 years of their growth and development in the Carpathian Mountains. The traits, including height, diameter at breast height, stem straightness, and crown width, were used to evaluate the differentiation of the provenances in their juvenile period and at maturity and were examined for patterns of local adaptation. The populations from northern Poland were characterized by the best growth and productivity, whereas provenances from central Poland had the best stem quality. There were some changes in growth between provenances observed during the experiment, but the stand volume (m<sup>3</sup>/ha) in juvenile trees was closely correlated with that in mature trees (<em>r</em> = 0.979). There was a positive relationship between the productivity and the environmental conditions of the geographical origin of provenances with increasing values for the trees’ productivity from south to north. Additionally, the elevation above sea level of the original populations was inversely correlated with the growth achieved by the progeny. In general, most populations from the species distribution range in Poland tested in the severe climate conditions of the Carpathian Mountains showed good growth performance under that environment, characterized by low temperatures and short growing periods. Provenances from climatic zones outside mountain regions demonstrated great growth and productivity, which proved to be the most important for competitively outperforming the local populations. Our study demonstrates good adaptive potential of the tested provenances, as selection will favor fast-growing genotypes under the predicted environmental change scenario.

Genetic Diversity of the Critically Endangered Lake Minnow Eupallasella percnurus in Poland and Its Implications for Conservation.

The lake minnow (Eupallasella percnurus) is critically endangered. In this paper we characterize the genetic properties of this fish over its range of occurrence in Poland and propose the use of this knowledge in its active protection. Twelve populations of lake minnow from across its range in Poland were investigated. 13 microsatellite loci were investigated to evaluate genetic variation and distance among populations. The magnitude of the genetic bottleneck or founder effects was investigated. In the studied populations, the allelic diversity and heterozygosity showed that genetic variation in this species is low. At most loci, only 2–3 alleles per population were detected. The average number of alleles detected across all loci was 35, and ranged from 24 to 53. The average observed heterozygosity (Ho) across all investigated loci was 0.38 (range 0.21–0.59); the average expected heterozygosity (He) was 0.36 (range 0.18–0.55). The populations remained in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The average Garza-Williamson M index value for all populations was low (0.47), suggesting a reduction in genetic variation due to a founder effect or a genetic bottleneck. Genetic distance among populations was high or very high (FST range: 0.20–0.64; δμ2 range: 1.32–16.98); this was likely a consequence of low gene flow among isolated populations, a founder effect or other genetic bottleneck, and strong genetic drift. The large genetic differences among the investigated lake minnow populations are likely to also exist among other populations of this species, and knowledge of these differences should inform active protection programs based on translocation of wild or cultivated fish of this species. The method presented here can potentially be applied to any population of lake minnows or closely related species.

Small mammals in the diet of owls in the Masovian Landscape Park and its adjacent areas

The diet of three owl species was analysed in 32 sites localised in the Masovian Landscape Park and its outskirts to determine the structure of small mammal communities. Study was done in the years 1993–2016, 5,728 vertebrate prey (including 4,001 mammals) were collected. Five species of soricomorphs, six bats, 14 rodents and one species of Carnivora were found. Among mammals, Myodes glareolus had the greatest share in the diet of Strix aluco. Tyto alba most frequently caught Microtus arvalis and Sorex araneus, while Asio otus – M. arvalis and M. oeconomus. Those prey, together with Apodemus flavicollis and A. agrarius, dominated in small mammal communities. One site of Crocidura leucodon was found on the western edge of its range in Poland. The share of bats in the diet of S. aluco was small (0.5% of mammals), Plecotus auritus was most frequent. Muscardinus avellanarius was found in forests of the southern part of the Masovian Landscape Park. It was relatively often caught by S. aluco in favourable habitats. Shares of M. oeconomus, M. agrestis and M. avellanarius in the diet of owls were significantly higher in southern part of the study area remote from Warsaw.

An invasion from Germany: Deroceras invadens (Pulmonata: Agriolimacidae) and other synanthropic slugs in the southwest corner of Poland

Ten towns in the southwest corner of Poland within 57 km of the German border were surveyed for slugs. Deroceras invadens was found only in the four westernmost towns. In Zgorzelec, which was surveyed more intensively than the other towns, it occurs widely but only sporadically. Although D. invadens had been known in the adjacent German town of Gorlitz since 1991, hitherto the only Polish record was from Wroclaw, 140 km to the east. This pattern suggests a new colonisation across the border. Amongst the other species, one surprise was the rarity of Deroceras reticulatum in several towns, and another that Arion fuscus was common in one town but not found in any of the others. Records of Deroceras praecox extend its known range in Poland further west. Contrary to expectations from the literature, Deroceras sturanyi was adult in spring and reproducing at a small size typical of Deroceras laeve. key WoRds: invasive species, urban fauna, Arion distinctus, A. fasciatus, A. fuscus, A. lusitanicus, A. rufus, A. silvaticus, Boettgerilla pallens, Deroceras laeve, D. invadens, D. praecox, D. reticulatum, D. sturanyi, Limacus flavus, Limax maximus, Oberlausitz, Lower Silesia, Dolny Śląsk, life cycle

The Viability of Winter Sporangia of Synchytrium endobioticum (Schilb.) Perc. from Poland

The longevity, infectivity and virulence of winter sporangia of Synchytrium endobioticum, the causal agent of potato wart disease, were studied in soil collected from an infested plot 43 years since the last observed infection. The demarcated plot was located in a mountainous area of the central part of Sudetes Mountain range in Poland and no potatoes were grown in the plots over that period. Sporangia of S. endobioticum were collected from the samples and retained viability after 46 years. Infectivity of the fungus was tested using modified Potocek’s tube test. The ability of the spores to invade and replicate in potato host tissue was demonstrated using sporangia collected after 43 years. The virulence of the obtained isolates was tested with the Glynne-Lemmerzal method. Two different pathotypes were identified: 1(D1), the most widely distributed in Europe and 3(M1), a unique Polish local pathotype, which was isolated and identified for the first time from the same location in 1965.

The role of domestic dogs and cats in the zoonotic cycles of ticks and pathogens. Preliminary studies in the Wrocław Agglomeration (SW Poland)

The collection of 729 tick specimens (Ixodes ricinus, 88.6%; Ixodes hexagonus, 9.2%; Dermacentor reticulatus, 2.2%) removed from 373 dogs and 78 cats, along with 201 ticks from vegetation (I. ricinus, 75.6%; D. reticulatus, 24.4%), allows one to say that pets play an important role in maintaining tick life cycles in different urban area. It shows the lack of statistical differences between tick intensity in high-impact anthropogenic areas (HIAA), low-impact anthropogenic areas (LIAA) and mixed areas designed, in an objective way, by GIS techniques.The comparable (statistically insignificant) level of infection with Borrelia spp. of I. ricinus from pets (22.5%) and vegetation (24.8%), shows that dogs and cats do not have zooprophylactic competence for Borrelia spp. in different urban areas. Moreover, Borrelia spp. was detected in I. hexagonues (1.5%) collected from pets, and in D. reticulatus (2%) obtained from vegetation. The presence of D. reticulatus in the Wrocław Agglomeration confirms its expansion and the distribution range in Poland.

Mapping of Dermacentor reticulatus expansion in Poland in 2012–2014

Rapid expansion of the tick Dermacentor reticulatus (Fabricius) has been reported in many European countries. In Poland its range was limited to the area on the eastern side of the Vistula River up until the 1990s. However, new foci were recently discovered, while the centre of the country and mountain regions are believed to be free of this tick and are known as “the gap”. A few unconfirmed factors, like unfavourable weather conditions, changes in land cover and absence of competent hosts have previously been reported as possible reasons for the absence of D. reticulatus in this area. Since D. reticulatus plays an important role for the maintenance and the circulation of tick-borne pathogens, we (1) determined its actual range in Poland, (2) monitored its expansion in 2012–2014 and (3) correlated abiotic conditions on its known range. Dragging was conducted in the area between the Vistula River and the western border of Poland in 2012–2014, along the three major Polish rivers and their tributaries. Temperature and humidity on the ground were recorded 4 times a day at a total of 32 sites.D. reticulatus was found in 21 new locations on the western side of the Vistula River and in 22 locations in western Poland. The presence of this tick species was confirmed for the first time in Wielkopolskie, Kujawsko-Pomorskie and Łódzkie voivodeships. Existence of ‘the gap’ was confirmed on a strip of land along the northwest–southeast axis (an area of approximately 151000km2), that extends between Zachodniopomorskie and Pomorskie in the North, and the mountain areas with foothills in the South, in Opolskie, Śląskie, Małopolskie and Podkarpackie voivodeships. This gap divides the tick population in Poland into two separated populations – Western and Eastern. The lowest abundance of ticks was found in the newly established foci in central and western Poland.Our study showed the need for the monitoring of the D. reticulatus expansion. Early detection of new foci is crucial for taking proper prevention measures.

Ectomycorrhizal fungal assemblages of Abies alba Mill. outside its native range in Poland.

Abies alba (Mill.) is an important forest tree species, native to the mountainous regions of Europe but has been also widely introduced in the lowlands outside its native range. Like most forest tree species, A. alba forms obligate mutualisms with ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi. This investigation sought to examine ECM fungal communities of A. alba when the species grows 400 km north of its native range in the region of Pomerania in Poland. We surveyed for ECM fungi by sampling live roots from four mature forest stands where the A. alba component ranged from 20 to 100 %. Ectomycorrhizal fungal symbionts were identified based on morphotyping and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA). Thirty-five ECM fungal taxa were distinguished on root tips of A. alba from all tested stands with 22 to 27 ECM fungal taxa in the individual stand. The diversity and similarity metrics revealed a lack of statistical differences in the structure of the ECM fungal community between stands varying in overstory tree composition. Cenococcum geophilum was the most common fungal species at all investigated A. alba stands, with an abundance of 50 to 70 %. The ECM community was characterized by the lack of Abies-specific fungal symbionts and a rich and diverse suite of host-generalist mycobionts that seem to be sufficient for successful growth and development of A. alba outside of its native range.

Vitality of European Beech (Fagus sylvaticaL.) at the Limit of Its Natural Range in Poland

The European beech is a major component of central European forests, and the eastern limit of its range lies in Poland. However, the Holocene migration of the beech is not yet finished, especially in NE Poland, so the northern distribution of the beech continues to change. The main goal of this study was to determine if the beech will reach its northern limit in the future.The investigation was carried out in 18 beech stands in Poland. To study the status of the health of the trees, circular plots were established in grids of different sizes. The basal beech stand area ranged from 3.7 m2 ha-1 to 31.2 m2 ha-1. The density of trees exceeded a hundred trees per hectare in most of the plots (61%), and the average degree of defoliation was not greater than 60% in all of the investigated stands. Environmental conditions influenced defoliation of beech trees (Fisher's test, F = 4.0204; P <0.0001). The vitality of the beech trees varied between stands (Kruskal-Walis test, H = 139.7433, P <0.0001) and was rather good in 56% of the study plots. Seedlings and saplings were observed in all of the investigated stands, and they covered from 5 to 39% and 21 to 80% of the study plots, respectively. Spontaneous beech regeneration was widespread and differed from stand to stand as well as within stands in all of the study plots. The number of tall seedlings in most of the study plots (56%) was greater than 10,000 individuals per hectare. The factors limiting beech regeneration were stand density and herb cover, and the number of beech seed trees influenced the quantity of small seedlings. Beech tree density positively influenced the number of small seedlings, and the strength of the correlation was moderate and statistically significant (Pearson correlation, r = 0.349). Beech tree density influenced the vitality of tall and small saplings (Pearson's correlations, r = 0.673 and r = 0.361, respectively). The spontaneous regeneration and strong vitality of seedlings and saplings suggests that beech can create stable stands in the future and that it is an expansive tree species both within its continuous range and at the limit of its distribution. It is quite possible that beech will reach its north-eastern limit in Poland in the future.