Random Practice Order Research Articles

Generalization of food devaluation following food-specific go/no-go training

The benefit of food-specific inhibition training on modulating food valuation and eating behaviors has been established, but generalization to untrained foods is seldomly examined. This study investigated whether stimulus variability and practice order, found to effect generalization in motor learning, can improve generalization following food-specific inhibition training. Ninety-three young adults practiced the Go/No-Go task online in three training conditions: 1) Constant (N = 30): inhibition practiced on one food stimulus; 2) Variable-Blocked (N = 32): inhibition practiced on 6 food stimuli, each in a separate block; and 3) Variable-Random (N = 31): inhibition practiced on 6 food stimuli in random order. Consistent with our hypothesis, the Variable-Random group showed better generalization of inhibition to untrained foods than the Constant and the Variable-Blocked groups immediately after training, demonstrating the benefit of stimulus variability and random practice order. This effect was not present 24 h after training. The Variable-Random group also showed decreased desire to eat untrained foods, exhibiting generalization of food devaluation. However, this effect was only present 24 h after training. The Constant group showed increased desire to eat untrained foods immediately and 24 h after training. The Variable-Blocked group did not differ from either group in the desire to eat to untrained foods, suggesting that random order is important for exposing the benefit of variability. The findings illustrate that presenting various training items in random order can improve generalization of food-specific inhibition training. However, inconsistencies found in the timing of generalization effects and modest effect sizes warrant additional investigation into generalization principles of food-specific inhibition training.

Effect of Random, Blocked, and Mixed Practice Order on Upper Extremity Motor Learning in Subjects with Parkinson’s Disease

Background: Random practice order has been shown to improve motor learning in normal individuals as well as sports players. The purpose of this study is to investigate which practice order is beneficial in subjects with Parkinson’s disease. Methodology: The total number of Subjects included in this study was 32. Blocked practice order followed by random followed by mixed practice order was given. In between washout period of 1 week was given. Response time during acquisition and retention was assessed. Data were analyzed statistically by using one-way ANOVA. Results: The mean time taken by the subjects was maximum with Random practice order with (p=0.001, SD= 10.73) during Acquisition and (p=0.003, SD=8.88). The mean time difference was maximum with random (p= 0.001) in both the acquisitions as well as retention phases. On comparing the difference between the 1st and 10th trials of all three practice orders by using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) post hoc analysis by using Tukey’s test, we observed that in subjects with PD Random practice order is more beneficial than mixed and blocked respectively. Discussion: On comparing all three practice orders we can infer that Upper Extremity motor learning skill was superior with Random practice orders followed by Mixed and blocked practice orders respectively in both the acquisition and retention phases. KEYWORDS: Parkinson’s Disease, Motor Learning, Practice Order, Acquisition, Retention.

Learning Multiple Movements in Parallel-Accurately and in Random Order, or Each with Added Noise?

Traditionally, studies on learning have mainly focused on the acquisition and stabilization of only single movement tasks. In everyday life and in sports, however, several new skills often must be learned in parallel. The extent to which the similarity of the movements or the order in which they are learned influences success has only recently begun to attract increased interest. This study aimed to compare the effects of CI in random practice order (high CI) with differential learning (DL) in learning three volleyball skills in parallel. Thirty-two advanced beginners in volleyball (mean age = 24, SD = 2.7) voluntarily participated in the study. Within a pre-, post-, retention test design, an intervention of six weeks and one week retention phase, the effects of three practice protocols of a CI, DL, and control (CO) group were compared. Three different volleyball skills (underhand pass, overhand pass, and overhand serve) were trained with emphasis on accuracy. Results showed statistically significant higher rates of improvement in the acquisition and learning phases for the DL group compared to the CI and CO groups. The differences were associated with moderate to high effect sizes in all individual skills and in the combined skills. The findings show more agreement with DL than with CI theory.

Contextual interference in children with brain lesions: a pilot study investigating blocked vs. random practice order of an upper limb robotic exergame

IntroductionEvidence about contextual interference in children with brain lesions when practising motor tasks is lacking. Our main objective was to evaluate the feasibility of a randomised controlled trial (RCT) comparing blocked with random practice order of an upper limb robotic exergame to improve reaching in children with neuromotor disorders with a pilot trial.MethodsWe recruited children with brain lesions and impaired upper limb functions who underwent a 3-week schedule that consisted of baseline assessments, intervention period (participants were randomised to a blocked or random order group), and follow-up assessment. We evaluated ten feasibility criteria, including the practicability of the inclusion/exclusion criteria, recruitment rate, feasibility of randomisation, scheduling procedure, and the participants’ programme adherence.ResultsThe inclusion/exclusion criteria were not completely feasible as patients who were not able to perform the exergames were included. Twelve participants were recruited, and six datasets were used for analysis. The scheduling and randomisation procedures were generally feasible, but the procedure was only partially feasible for the participants, as some sessions were aborted due to lack of motivation and fatigue.ConclusionAn RCT following this study protocol is not feasible. We formulated suggestions for future studies that aim to investigate contextual interference as in this pilot study.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02443857, registered on May 14, 2015

Contextual interference in children with brain lesions: protocol of a pilot study investigating blocked vs. random practice order of an upper limb robotic exergame

BackgroundIf adults practice several motor tasks together, random practice leads to better transfer and retention compared to blocked practice. Knowledge about this contextual interference (CI) effect could be valuable to improve neurorehabilitation of children. We present the protocol of a randomised controlled pilot study investigating the feasibility of blocked practice vs. random practice of robot-assisted upper limb reaching in children with brain lesions undergoing neurorehabilitation.MethodsChildren with affected upper limb function due to congenital or acquired brain lesions undergoing neurorehabilitation will be recruited for a randomised controlled pilot study with a 3-week procedure. In the control week (1), two assessment blocks (robot-assisted reaching tasks, Melbourne assessment 2, subscale fluency), 2 days apart, take place. In the practice week (2), participants are randomly allocated to blocked practice or random practice and perform 480 reaching and backward movements in the horizontal and vertical plane using exergaming with an exoskeleton robot per day during three consecutive days. Assessments are performed before, directly after and 1 day after the practice sessions. In the follow-up week (3), participants perform the assessments 1 week after the final practice session. The primary outcome is the immediate transfer of the Melbourne Assessment 2, subscale fluency. Secondary outcomes are the immediate retention, 1-day and 1-week delayed transfer and retention and acquisition during the practice sessions. We will evaluate the feasibility of the inclusion criteria, the recruitment rate, the scheduling procedure, the randomisation procedure, the procedure for the participants, the handling of the robot, the handling of the amount of data, the choice of the outcome measures and the influence of other therapies. Furthermore, we will perform a power calculation using the data to estimate the sample size for the main trial.DiscussionThe protocol of the pilot study is a first step towards a future main randomised controlled trial. This low risk pilot study might induce some benefits for the participants. However, we need to place its results into perspective, especially concerning the generalisability, as it remains questionable whether improving reaching constrained within a robotic device will ameliorate daily life reaching tasks.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02443857

The role of the practice order: A systematic review about contextual interference in children.

AimWe aimed to identify and evaluate the quality and evidence of the motor learning literature about intervention studies regarding the contextual interference (CI) effect (blocked vs. random practice order) in children with brain lesions and typically developing (TD) children.MethodEight databases (Cinahl, Cochrane, Embase, PubMed, Pedro, PsycINFO, Scopus and Web of Knowledge) were searched systematically with predefined search terms. Controlled studies examining the CI effect in children (with brain lesions or TD) were included. Evidence level, conduct quality, and risk of bias were evaluated by two authors independently. A best evidence synthesis was performed.ResultsTwenty-five papers evaluating TD children were included. One of these studies also assessed children with cerebral palsy. Evidence levels were I, II, or III. Conduct quality was low and the risk of bias high, due to methodological issues in the study designs or poor description thereof. Best evidence synthesis showed mainly no or conflicting evidence. Single tasks showed limited to moderate evidence supporting the CI effect in TD children.ConclusionThere is a severe limitation of good-quality evidence about the CI effect in children who practice different tasks in one session, especially in children with brain lesions.

Contextual Interference Modulated by Pitcher Skill Level

The purpose of this study was to examine the contextual interference eSect modulated by skill level in the throwing of diSerent ball types by pitchers. College and high school baseball pitchers were asked to throw straight balls and breaking balls to the outside half and lower half of the home plate. Twenty pitchers were divided into 4 groups, determined by a combination of practice order (random or blocked) and skill level (high or low). A pretest comprised 10 trials (5 straight balls and 5 breaking balls in random order); 40 trials in a practice session were divided into 4 blocks, 10 trials each; and a posttest and retention test (after one day) involved 10 trials, similar to the pretest. The main ˆnding of interest was an interaction eSect of skill level with practice order in the retention test. For the low level pitchers there was no diSerence of practice order groups. However, for the high level pitchers, those in the random practice order group showed better control than the blocked practice order group. The result suggests that the contextual interference eSect is modulated by skill level of pitchers.

When Repetition Isn’t the Best Practice Strategy: Effects of Blocked and Random Practice Schedules

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of blocked and random practice schedules on the performance accuracy, speed, temporal evenness, and attitude of beginning band students in a group instructional setting. The research assumptions were based on the contextual interference hypothesis, which predicts that a blocked practice order (low contextual interference) leads to superior performance immediately following practice but that a random practice order (high contextual interference) supports superior performance at delayed retention testing. Beginning clarinet students ( N = 41) completed three practice sessions and one retention testing session, performing three seven-pitch exercises. At the end of practice, no significant differences were found between blocked and random practice groups for accuracy, speed, or temporal evenness. At retention, the random group performed significantly faster than the blocked group, F(1, 38) = 24.953, p < .001, η2 = .92, and the blocked group performed significantly slower than it did at the end of practice ( p < .001). No significant differences were found between groups for transfer tasks or for attitude toward practice.

Cognitive underpinnings of contextual interference during motor learning

The reported study examined the cognitive processes underlying contextual interference (CI) in motor learning. This experiment was designed to assess the combined influence of practice schedule (blocked or random) and task similarity (similar or dissimilar) on acquisition and retention performance. Participants (N=60) learned a set of three variations of a timing task according to a similar (900, 1000 and 1100ms) or dissimilar parameter condition (700, 1000 and 1300ms) with either a blocked or random practice order: this resulted in 4 experimental groups. Performance in delayed retention demonstrated a typical CI effect due to the schedule of practice for the dissimilar parameter condition with the random practice group outperforming the blocked practice group. Conversely, no blocked-random difference was found for the similar parameter condition. These findings lend support for the reconstruction hypothesis by showing that supplementing random practice with additional intertask elaboration (i.e., similar parameter condition) did not facilitate subsequent retention performance.

Effect of Task Practice Order on Motor Skill Learning in Adults With Parkinson Disease: A Pilot Study

Random practice of motor tasks has been shown to enhance motor learning. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of task practice order (random, blocked) on motor learning in adults with Parkinson disease (PD). Twenty adults with mild PD and 20 age-matched adults (controls) participated in the study. Participants in both groups (PD and control) practiced 3 movement tasks with either a blocked or a random practice order. This 2 participant group x 2 practice order design resulted in 4 experimental groups. The Trail Making Test was administered to all participants to determine task-switching capability. Motor performance on the arm movement tasks was quantified on the basis of the root-mean-square error difference between the goal movement task and each participant's response. The task-switching capability of the control group was superior to that of the PD group. For acquisition, in general, participants in the control group performed with significantly less error than participants in the PD group. For retention, participants in the control group who practiced with a random order performed more accurately than participants in the control group who practiced with a blocked order. However, for the PD group, the findings were reversed; participants who practiced with a blocked order performed more accurately than participants who practiced with a random order. These findings resulted in a group x practice order interaction. These pilot study data suggest that, contrary to the findings for age-matched control learners, for learners with mild PD, a blocked practice order may be better than a random practice order for motor learning.

Motorisches Lernen - Therapierelevante Forschungsergebnisse

Einleitung: Um Alltagsaktivitäten (wieder) durchführen zu können, müssen Patienten häufig Bewegungsabläufe erlernen oder neu erlernen. Es stellt sich die Frage, wie diese Lernprozesse für eine effektive, effiziente und langfristig erfolgreiche Therapie optimiert werden können.

The Role of Variability in Practice Structure when Learning to Use an Upper-Extremity Prosthesis

This study contrasted two different practice schedules for learning to use a prosthetic simulator that mimicked an upper-extremity prosthesis with a voluntary-close terminal device. The purpose was to determine an efficient practice schedule for learning to perform prehension skills that could be employed by people learning to use an actual prosthesis after amputation. Forty-eight participants were randomly distributed into two groups for skill acquisition training: those who practiced three different prehension tasks with the simulator in a random practice order or those who practiced the three tasks with the simulator under a blocked practice order. During acquisition, the groups practiced the three tasks on two consecutive days. On the third day, two different tests of learning were administered: a retention test on the tasks practiced in acquisition and an intertask transfer test on three tasks similar to those practiced in acquisition. Both the random and blocked groups showed significant improvements in initiation time and movement time to perform each task across the 2 days of acquisition. Thus, structured practice, regardless of degree of “randomness” inherent in the schedule, promoted functional use of the prosthesis. Both practice schedules were equally effective for promoting skill retention; however, in intertask transfer, the random acquisition group demonstrated significantly greater proficiency in performing the new tasks than the blocked acquisition group. Persons learning to use an upper-extremity prosthesis may be better able to transfer skill to new prehension tasks by practicing under random practice conditions.

IS THE CONTEXTUAL INTERFERENCE EFFECT GENERALIZABLE TO COMPUTER GAMES?

The benefits of learning multiple tasks under an unstructured practice schedule have been extensively demonstrated in the laboratory. The purpose of the present study was to test contextual interference effects in a nonlaboratory setting using computer games as tasks. Undergraduate kinesiology and sport management majors (N=19) played a computer game simulating the events of the winter Olympics. Participants were randomly assigned to either a Blocked or Random practice schedule, practicing 36 trials of three events. Delayed retention and transfer tests were performed after a 48-hr. retention interval. The dependent variable was time to complete an event. During transfer, participants in the Random schedule (M = 248 sec.) were significantly faster than Blocked (M = 263 sec.) participants. Results support and extend previous contextual interference findings. Transfer was facilitated for participants who learned the events in a Random practice order. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of task characteristics on learning.

Contextual Interference in Motor Learning: Dissociated Effects Due to the Nature of Task Variations

The contextual interference effect in motor learning refers to the interference that results from practising a task within the concept of other tasks in a practice session. Several studies have shown that practice under conditions of high contextual interference (i.e. with a random practice order) degrades performance during acquisition trials, compared to low contextual interference conditions (i.e. with a blocked order, where practice is completed on one task before practice on another task is undertaken). In contrast to acquisition performance, random practice usually leads to more effective learning than blocked practice, as measured by retention and transfer tests. One of the hypotheses regarding the effect suggests that a random practice schedule induces more extensive planning operations during practice than a blocked practice condition. If so, then differences between these two conditions should emerge to the degree that the set of tasks requires complete reconstruction of these planning operations on each trial. To address this issue, we compared four groups of subjects: a blocked and random group that practised three timing tasks that shared a common characteristic (same relative timing), and a blocked and random group that practised three tasks that each had different relative timing structures. Subjects practised these tasks on each of two days, with a retention test and two transfer tests that required either a relative timing structure that had been practised previously or had not previously been practised. No random/ blocked differences occurred regardless of the relative timing of the patterns during acquisition or retention. However, for both transfer tests, random practice enhanced learning only for the group that had practised with tasks that each had different relative timing during acquisition. Implications of these results for an explanation of contextual interference are discussed.