Rainy Spells Research Articles

Soil mineral nitrogen dynamics in fallow periods in a rainfed semiarid Mediterranean agricultural system

Rainfed agricultural systems in semiarid Mediterranean environments are subject to erratic but often heavy rainfall events. As an agronomic practice, fallow periods can be included even within the existing EU common policy for crop diversification. This research aimed to quantify the effects of a previous mineral fertilization on the soil mineral nitrogen (N min ) content and on potential nitrate leaching during no-tilled fallow periods of a crop rotation. Water and N min soil measurements obtained during three fallow seasons were used. Data were also used to check if the Leaching Estimation and Chemistry Model (LEACHM) can be used for the soil N min prediction after fallow. During these periods, the N min measured in the soil profile increased on average by 125 kg N ha -1 , while the model averaged an increase of 95 kg N ha -1 . The estimate of N leached ranged from 11 to 38 kg N ha -1 . The N balance simulated using LEACHM might differ from the actual processes. After a drought period followed by a soil water replenishment, the calibrated LEACHM underestimated soil N min probably due to the “Birch effect”. After occasional rainy spells when soil quickly became saturated, LEACHM overestimated soil N min probably due to occasional N 2 O emissions not being fully accounted by the model and to specific preferential water flow, which might produce a greater nitrate leaching than that simulated by LEACHM using the convection-dispersion equation . The results show that soil N min measurements by sampling after the fallow period cannot be replaced by LEACHM simulations. These samplings are of interest in fallow established inside a rotation and to avoid over-fertilization in the following cropping season, while reducing N environmental impacts.

Case Report on Flood Disasters in 20th-Century Korea: Focusing on the Dongjin-River and Imjin-River Basins

(1) In the East Asian region, the monsoon season characterized by a long rainy spell (jangma 장마 in Korean; baiu 梅雨 in Japanese) from early summer, and followed by typhoon 颱風 (taepung in Korean; taifū in Japanese) has caused tremendous disasters. (2) In the same way as Japan and China, Korea has also suffered from recurring floods caused by a concentration of rainfall and flood inundation during the summer seasons. Remarkably, recent floods have tended to become more severe and long-term due to recent global climate changes. (3) Historically, flood disasters on the Korean Peninsula occurring principally around the lower reaches of the great rivers have frequented the richest rice cultivation areas (Honam Plain 湖南平野) of the southern part as well as the inland area of the middle part of the Korean Peninsula. (4) This study examines the first case of the lower Dongjin-river basin as an endemic flood area in the center of Honam Plain, and the second case of the Imjin & Hant’anriver basins in the middle of the Korean Peninsula. While the first case area has been affected by intensive agricultural and water-control projects since the early Japanese colonial rule in Korea, the second case area has remained a backwater region of dryfield agriculture, long isolated from local development projects. (5) This study aims to explain the vicious cycle of local development and natural disasters in the context of the growing population (urbanization) in the twentieth century through the cases culled from Korea.

Observing a severe flooding over southern part of India in monsoon season of 2019

Kerala is one of the most flood prone states of India due to its geographical location and topography. In recent decades, the frequency and intensity of flood has significantly increased in Kerala. Floods that occurred in the year 2007, 2009, 2014 and 2018 resulted in heavy damage in the form of lives and properties. This research focuses on exploring a recent flood event of Kerala in July–August 2019 using observations from space. Enhanced convective activities over Kerala were resulted due to movement of a low-pressure system westwards from Bay of Bengal towards coastal Arabian Sea under favourable conditions. Results report that excess cumulative rainfall resulting from multi-day extreme precipitation events due to enhanced convection during July and August resulted in catastrophic flood events over various parts of Kerala. Kannur, Wayanad, Kozhikode and Palakkad districts of north Kerala were affected more as compared to other region. Kannur district received a cumulative rainfall of about 1300 mm from multiple rainy spells during July and August of 2019. Peak rainfall was recorded on August 08, 2019. A peak hourly rainfall of about 60 mm/h was recorded at 1230 UTC on August 08 over Kannur district. These multiple heavy to very heavy rainfall episodes led to severe flooding over Kerala resulting in huge damage. Present research emphasizes on the importance of space-borne satellite remote sensing in monitoring of flood events in order to envisage preparedness and mitigation in flood scenarios.

Weather effects on breeding parameters of two insectivorous passerines in a polluted area

Direct and indirect effects of environmental pollution affect negatively to birds' breeding performance in both urban and industrial environments, but much less is known on how pollution and natural stress factors work together. In our long-term study (1991–2018), we explored whether industrial pollution and associated habitat changes increase the sensitivity of breeding parameters (hatching and fledging success, nestling growth) to temperature and precipitation in two insectivorous bird species, the great tit (Parus major) and the pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca). We found that both species are rather weather sensitive in terms of their fledging success, but especially in the F. hypoleuca, the negative effect was strengthened in a polluted environment. For both study species, all the breeding parameters, except growth of F. hypoleuca nestlings, were inferior in the polluted area and negatively affected by cold weather. Independent of pollution, the duration of rainy spells during the nestling period had an overall negative effect on fledging success of F. hypoleuca, and this effect became stronger at cold temperatures. The length of rainy spells was, however, positively associated with nestling wing length in both species, possibly because of better availability of some important food resources for wing growth in more humid conditions. The weather-pollution interactions in our study populations were not overwhelmingly strong, but those found in F. hypoleuca show that such interactions exist, they are species-specific and in our study system most likely associated to pollution-related resource (e.g. food) limitation. Higher sensitivity of F. hypoleuca to low temperatures is likely related to its less well-insulated nests and higher dependence on aerial prey, the availability of which is especially reduced during cold and rainy spells. Our study indicates that anthropogenic stress, such as pollution, has synergistic effects with natural stress factors affecting passerine birds' breeding performance.

Analysis of Rainfall Variability for Mekelle Meteorological Station, Northern Ethiopia (1960-2009)

Nowadays rainfall variability is threatening the world. Despite this, studies related to the determination of variations, trends and fluctuations of rainfall have little local and regional specificity. Hence, this study aimed to analyze the trend and variability of the annual and seasonal rainfall occurrence at Mekelle Airport meteorological station, Northern Ethiopia. Historical rainfall data for the period 1960-2009 of the rain gauge station were obtained from National Meteorological Service Agency. Annual, seasonal and monthly rainfall trends; onset and cessation date of kiremt rainfall; growing period length and the number of rainy days and dry spell length were considered. Standardize anomaly index (SAI) and coefficient of variance was employed to analyze the rainfall data variability using INSTAT plus, SPSS version 20 and Excel. Analysis of the historical data showed extremely severe drought happened in the area in 1984 which resulted in the death of one million people, 8 million people highly affected, and 2.3 million people food in secured. 1961 was an extremely wet year. Generally, 70%, 18% and 12% years were normal, dry and wet respectively for the last 50 years. High annual, seasonal and monthly rainfall variability was observed. Though the station showed both increasing (1984-1988) and decreasing trends (1961-1968) of annual rainfall totals a declining trend was more pronounced. Besides, one to two weeks variability on the onset and cessation date was observed. The minimum and maximum kiremt season rainy days recorded in 1987 (27days) and 1986 (86 days) respectively while the maximum dry spell days recorded in the 50 years was in 1969. Thus, devising agronomic practices that retain moisture at the plant root zone and reduce crop failure due to variability of rainfall including extended dry spell could be important. Keywords Rainfall variability, trends, standard anomaly index, Mekelle DOI : 10.7176/CER/11-9-02 Publication date :October 31 st 2019

Application of Markov chain on daily rainfall data in Paraíba-Brazil from 1995-2015

This study analyzed the behavior of daily rainfall in the State of Paraiba using the data from five meteorological stations distributed across the mesoregions of this state. We used the three-state Markov Chain model, in which states are defined as dry, wet and rainy. We calculated transition probabilities among states, probabilities of equilibrium of states, and expected lengths of the defined states for all stations and seasons to investigate spatial/seasonal variability. Results showed that for the entire region and for all seasons, the probability of dry days is greater than the probability of rainy days; expected values of rainy spells are low, indicating that the rainfall regime in Paraiba is characterized by high rainfall intensity distributed over short rainy periods. The dry-dry transition probability presents the highest values for all seasons and stations, as well as the corresponding expected dry spell length, indicating that this region is subjected to prolonged dry periods. The transition probabilities that lead to dry condition are higher in the interior of the State, while probabilities that lead to rainy condition are higher in the coastal region as well as the probability of rainy days, which is greater in fall, during the rainy season.

Effects of Beach Nourishment and the Influence of Irrigation Water Discharge on Byunsan Beach, West Coast, Korea

AbstractByunsan Beach located on the west coast of Korea has been undergoing significant erosion in recent years during and after the construction of a large tidal embankment, the Saemanguem Dike, mostly because of the blocking of the sand supply from rivers. To reduce and prevent beach erosion, the Korean government decided to carry out beach nourishment in May 2012 just before the summer season. In order to monitor the performance of beach nourishment, precise measurements of beach morphology were taken 21 times during a 1‐year period from May 2012 to April 2013 by using a RTK‐GPS system. The result showed that the beach nourishment preserved the beach effectively, based on the fact that most of the additional sand remained on the beach after 1 year. Although a local part of the beach was severely eroded by a heavy volume of irrigation discharge during the summer rainy spell, it recovered within a short period of time. As a major erosional event the whole area of the beach experienced massive erosion in a strong cyclone, Typhoon Sanba, in September 2012, but the beach recovered rapidly after the typhoon. Sediment accumulation also took place during the winter season, retaining the sand and aiding recovery of the beach. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Monitoring Tamil Nadu flood of 2015 using satellite remote sensing

Satellite based remote sensing technique is used in this short communication to analyze the flood events of Tamil Nadu (TN) during November–December 2015. It is reported that few districts of TN received continuous multiday intense rainfall (in the range of 200–340 mm/day) during second week of November and first week of December. Results reveal that intense and long rainy spells during second, last week of November and first week of December resulted in heavy flooding over TN.

Flower production and phenology in Dactylis glomerata

The species Dactylis glomerata is one of the most important sources of airborne grass pollen in the atmosphere of temperate countries. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between flowers, weather and the contribution of their pollen in the air. The plants were cultivated in an experimental garden in south-western Spain, which lies next to a spore trap and a meteorological station. The flower phenology and variation in the number of inflorescences were studied for 6 years (2009–2014); flower and pollen production were analysed in the first and third years of the study. The flowering process occurs within 20 (11–28) days, commencing at the end of April and extending to the end of May. The average number of days with open flowers per inflorescence was 10.1 (3–17), and rain lengthened this period. There was a statistically significant negative correlation between the number of days in flowering and the flowering onset. The first inflorescences were larger and flowered longer than the final ones. The spikelets and flowers along the inflorescence were not distributed evenly and were more abundant in the middle. The approximation of total pollen production per plant was, on average, approximately 50 million, with differences depending upon the number of inflorescences per plant, which averaged 23.7 (3–108). In Mediterranean areas, D. glomerata flowering occurs within a short period of time, in the middle of spring, but rainy spells lengthen this period. The airborne grass pollen season was influenced by the pollen production of this species during the first half of this pollen season.

First Report of Powdery Mildew Caused by Erysiphe platani on Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) in South Korea.

Platanus occidentalis L. (sycamore) is an important shade tree distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere and in South Korea. It has been widely used as an ornamental tree, especially in urban regions and by roadsides. The average rate of roadside planting throughout South Korea covers about 5.7% (up to 38% in Seoul), equivalent to 0.36 million trees. In early July 2012, after a rainy spell in summer, an outbreak of powdery mildew on sycamore was first observed on roadside trees in Gwangju, a southern province of South Korea. A more extensive nationwide survey revealed no powdery mildew in northern or central regions of South Korea. The disease has spread rapidly within Gwangju, even though fungicide applications were carried out after the rainy spell. Major symptoms included white, superficial mycelia, grey to brown lesions on the surface of the leaves due to the presence of a hyperparasite (tentatively identified as Ampelomyces sp.), a slight chlorosis, and severe leaf distortion followed by defoliation. Conidiophores were produced singly, straight, and unbranched, with lengths of 35.2 to 315.2 μm (average 170.4 μm). Conidia were ellipsoid or doliiform, ranging in size from 34.9 to 47.4 μm (average 38.2 μm) long × 16.5 to 26.8 μm (average 23.9 μm) wide. Primary conidia had a truncate base and rounded apex; secondary conidia had both a truncate base and apex. The conidial outer surface had a reticulated wrinkling. Cleistothecia (i.e., sexual spore structures) were not found during the survey, which extended from July to October. These characteristics and the host species match those of Microsphaera platani (syn. Erysiphe platani), which was described on P. occidentalis in Washington State (2). Fungal rDNA was amplified using primers ITS1 and LR5F (4) for one sample (EML-PLA1, GenBank JX485651). BLASTn searches of GenBank revealed high sequence identity to E. platani (99.5% to JQ365943 and 99.3% to JQ365940). Recently, Liang et al. (3) reported the first occurrence of powdery mildew by E. platani on P. orientalis in China based only on its morphology. Thus, in this study, author could only use ITS sequence data from the United States and Europe to characterize the isolate. To date, nine records of powdery mildews of Platanus spp. have been reported worldwide: on P. hispanica from Brazil, Japan, Hungary, and Slovakia; P. orientalis from Israel; P. racemosa from the United States; P. × acerifolia from the United Kingdom and Germany; and Platanus sp. from Argentina and Australia (1). Interestingly, the hyperparasite, Ampelomyces sp., was found with E. platani, suggesting that there may be some level of biocontrol in nature. Pathogenicity was confirmed by gently pressing diseased leaves onto six leaves of healthy sycamore plants in the field in September. The treated leaves were sealed in sterilized vinyl pack to maintain humid condition for 2 days. Similar symptoms were observed on the inoculated leaves 10 days after inoculation. Koch's postulates were fulfilled by re-observing the fungal pathogen. To our knowledge, this is the first report of powdery mildew caused by E. platani on sycamore in South Korea.

Are tree ontogenetic structure and allometric relationship independent of vegetation formation type? A case study with Cordia oncocalyx in the Brazilian caatinga

In temperate and tropical rainforests, ontogenetic structure and allometry during tree ontogeny are often associated with light gradients. Light is not considered a limiting resource in deciduous thorny woodland (DTW), but establishment and growth occur during a short rainy period, when the canopy is fully leaved and light in the understory may be modified. Our aim was to investigate whether the light gradient in DTW and the biomechanical limitations of tree growth would be enough to produce an ontogenetic structure and allometric growth similar to rainforest canopy trees. We investigated the ontogenetic stages and diameter–height relationship of Cordia oncocalyx (Boraginaceae), a dominant canopy tree of the DTW of semiarid northeastern Brazil. We tagged, measured and classified the ontogenetic stages of 2.895 individuals in a 1 ha area (5°6′58.1″S and 40°52′19.4″W). In the rainy season only 4.7% of the light falling on the canopy reached the ground. Initial ontogenetic stages, mainly infant (50.9%) and seedling (42.1%), were predominant in the population, with the remaining 7% distributed among juvenile, immature, virginile and reproductive. The ontogenetic structure was similar to that of rainforest tree species, but the population formed both permanent seed and infant banks in response to long dry periods and erratic rainy spells. Like many other Boraginaceae tree species in tropical rainforests, C. oncocalyx has a Prévost architectural model, but allometric growth was quite different from rainforest trees. C. oncocalyx invested slightly more in diameter at first, then in height and finally invested greatly in diameter and attained an asymptotic height. The continued high investment in diameter growth at late stages and the asymptotic height point to low tree density and more frequent xylem embolism as the main drivers of tree allometric shape in DTW. This indicates that tree ontogenetic structure and allometric relationships depend on vegetation formation type.

Geoinformatics for assessing the morphometric control on hydrological response at watershed scale in the Upper Indus Basin

Five watersheds (W1, W2, W3, W4 and W5) in the upper Indus basin were chosen for detailed studies to understand the influences of geomorphology, drainage basin morphometry and vegetation patterns on hydrology. From the morphometric analysis, it is evident that the hydrologic response of these watersheds changes significantly in response to spatial variations in morphometric parameters. Results indicate that W1, W2 and W5 contribute higher surface runoff than W3 and W4. Further, the topographic and land cover analyses reveal that W1, W2 and W5 generate quick runoff that may result in flooding over prolonged rainy spells. A physically based semi-distributed hydrologic model (soil and water assessment tool, SWAT) was used for simulating the hydrological response from the watersheds. As per the simulations, W5 watershed produces the highest runoff of 11.17 mm/year followed by W1 (7.9 mm/year), W2 (6.6 mm/year), W4 (5.33 mm/year) and W3 (4.29 mm/year). Thus, W5 is particularly more vulnerable to flooding during high rain spells followed by W1, W2, W4 and W3, respectively. Synthetic unit hydrograph analysis of the five watersheds also reveals high peak discharge for W5. The simulated results on the hydrological response from the five watersheds are quite in agreement with those of the morphometric, topographic, vegetation and unit hydrograph analyses. Therefore, it is quite evident that these factors have significant impact on the hydrological response from the watersheds and can be used to predict flood peaks, sediment yield and water discharge from the ungauged watersheds.

Época de semeadura do milho para a região de Sete Lagoas, MG, baseada na probabilidade de ocorrência de períodos secos e chuvosos

O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar as probabilidades de ocorrência de períodos secos e chuvosos na região de Sete Lagoas, MG, a partir de uma série de 66 anos de dados diários de precipitação pluvial, visando subsidiar a definição da melhor data de semeadura do milho. Foram considerados dias secos aqueles que apresentaram precipitação inferior à evapotranspiração do milho, ETmilho. O estudo foi realizado para as fases de floração e enchimento de grãos a partir de sete datas de semeadura DS (01/10, 16/10, 31/10, 15/11, 01/12, 16/12 e 31/12). As chances de ocorrência dos períodos secos e chuvosos foram estimadas mediante o uso da cadeia de Markov. A probabilidade de ocorrência de dias secos foi sempre superior à de dias chuvosos. As maiores possibilidades de ocorrência de dias secos foram observadas entre as DS 15/11 e 31/12. A maior probabilidade de ocorrência de dias chuvosos foi registrada na DS 01/10. Considerando o ciclo médio estudado (para a fase mais crítica do milho), a combinação de menor chance de períodos secos com a de dias chuvosos indica que as melhores datas para iniciar a semeadura de sequeiro seriam as de DS 01/10 e 16/10.

Multiscale interaction with topography and extreme rainfall events in the northeast Indian region

Flash floods associated with extreme rain events are a major hydrological disaster in the northeast Indian (NEI) region because of the unique topographic features of the region as well as increased frequency of occurrence of such events. Knowledge of the spatiotemporal distribution of these events in the region and an understanding of the factors responsible for them, therefore, would be immensely useful for appropriate disaster preparedness. Using daily rainfall data from 15 stations over the region for 32 years (1975–2006), it is shown that the frequency of occurrence of these events is largest not during the premonsoon thunderstorm season but during the peak monsoon months (June–July–August). This fact together with the fact that most of these events occur during long rainy spells indicate that the extreme events in the NEI region largely occur in association with the monsoon synoptic events rather than isolated thunderstorms. We also find that the aggregate of extreme rain events over the region has a significant decreasing trend in contrast to a recent finding of an increasing trend of such events in central India (Goswami et al., 2006). This decreasing trend of extreme events is consistent with observed decreasing trend in convective available potential energy and increasing convective inhibition energy over the region for the mentioned period. Examination of the structure of convection associated with the extreme rain events in the region indicates that they occur through a multiscale interaction of circulation with the local topography. It is found that at all the stations, the events are associated with a mesoscale structure of convection that is embedded in a much larger scale convective organization. We identify that this large‐scale organization is a manifestation of certain phases of the tropical convergence zone associated with the northward propagating active‐break phases of the summer monsoon intraseasonal oscillation. Further, it is shown that the mesoscale circulation interacting with the local topography generates southward propagating gravity waves with diurnal period. The strong updrafts associated with the gravity waves within the mesoscale organization leads to very deep convective events and the extreme rainfall. The insights provided by our study would be useful when designing models to improve the prediction of extreme events.

The 35th International Byron Society Conference: 'Lord Byron and History' 6–13 September 2009 Messolonghi and Athens

- why turn my thoughts to thee? Oh! who can look along thy native sea, Nor dwell upon thy name, whate'er the tale, So much its magic must o'er all prevail? Who that beheld that Sun upon thee set, Fair Athens! could thine evening face forget? Not he - whose heart nor time nor distance frees, Spell-bound within the clustering Cyclades! The Corsair, III, 1223-30 The 35th annual International Byron Conference took place in Messolonghi and Athens (with visits to Mycenae, Epidaurus and Nafplion) from 6 to 13 September 2009. Messolonghi, a town rightfully linked to Byron's heritage, co-hosted, along with the city of Athens, 120 Byronists from 20 countries around the world, making this year's conference a truly cosmopolitan and multicultural event. At the same time, the conference honoured a significant Byronic bicentennial, taking place almost exactly 200 years after the poet's first arrival in Greece on 26 September 1809. This felicitous coincidence granted the conference a commemorative feel, with delegates coming as pilgrims to the actual places where Byron lived, created and 'dream'd that Greece might still be free'. On the evening of Sunday 6 September, conference delegates - among them Lord Byron and his family - made their way to the Central Building of Athens University, an impressive neoclassical building, with beautiful frescoes, right in the heart of Athens, and to its Great Hall, where the official Opening Ceremony was held. There were welcome addresses by the Rector of Athens University, Professor Christos N. Kittas, the British Ambassador to Greece, Dr David Landsman, Joint President of the International Byron Society, Professor M. B. Raizis, and the Chair of the conference's Organising Committee, Mrs Rodanthi-Rosa Florou. After the welcoming words and heart-felt good wishes came the central event of the evening: Professor Jerome McGann's receipt of an honorary doctorate from the University of Athens, a moving ceremony for everyone present. Professor McGann (Virginia) then gave an address, entitled 'Byron Awakening and the Dream of Greece', reflected insightfully on Byron's passion for Greece and on how this strong feeling marked his personal, poetic and political life from his first experience of Greece in 1809 to his last, fatal journey to Messolonghi in 1824. Inspired by the wonderful talk and by the ceremony's warm and lively atmosphere, delegates were ushered to the adjacent patio and treated to a wine reception. In spite of rainy spells, spirits were high and Byronists enjoyed their first evening in Athens. The second day in Athens offered especially interesting events and proved, by general consensus, one of the highlights of the conference. The first event took place in the Congress Hall of the Old Parliament Building, home to the country's National Historical Museum. Our group was offered the chance to peruse items of Byron memorabilia (his helmet, sword, writing desk and some letters), which were moved into the Congress Hall for the purposes of this conference by courtesy of the Museum's General Secretary, Mr Ioannis Mazarakis Ainian. Seated on the benches of this historic chamber, we were treated to a fascinating lecture by William St Clair (Cambridge) on how the Acropolis of Athens was viewed and perceived in the age of Lord Byron. Drawing on a variety of historical sources and images - some never previously shown - St Clair argued for three genres of viewing the Acropolis at the time: the philosophical, the topographical and the aesthetic. He discussed the viewing experiences of three main constituencies of viewers: the local people, visitors from abroad and the writers, painters and engravers who fictionalised the landscape of Athens and who, ultimately, made its meanings. St Clair's excellent address was followed by a dramatic reading of Byron's letters from his first journey to Greece in 1809-11, an event organised and presented by the Division of Arts and Humanities and the Interdisciplinary Center for Hellenic Studies of the Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. …

사과 과수원에서의 토양 CO2발생량 평가

본 실험은 사과원 토양으로부터의 <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX>방출량을 정량적으로 파악하고, 토양호흡과 환경인자와의 관계를 알아보기 위해 수행되었다, 실험은 경기도 수원 국립 원예특작과학원 내의 사과 '후지' 과수원에서 2007년 4월 23일<TEX>$\sim$</TEX>2008년 3월 31일까지 실시하였다. 자체 제작한 자동 토양호흡 측정장치(밀폐법)를 이용하여 밀폐법에 근거하여 사과원의 토양 호흡을 지속적으로 측정 하였다. 토양 호흡속도의 일변화는 일출 이후의 온도 상승과 함께 아침 7시경부터 증가하여, 온도가 가장 높은 <TEX>$14{\sim}15$</TEX>시경에 최대값(<TEX>$399.4{\sim}450.9mg$</TEX> <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> <TEX>$m^2d^{-1}$</TEX>)을 나타내었으며 이후 온도의 하강과 함께 감소하였다. 토양 호흡속도는 <TEX>$0.82{\sim}13.65g$</TEX> <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> <TEX>$m^2d^{-1}$</TEX> 범위의 계절변화를 보였고, 온도가 높고 강우가 많았던 <TEX>$7{\sim}9$</TEX>월에는 비교적 온도가 낮았던 <TEX>$5{\sim}6$</TEX>월보다 토양호흡 속도가 낮았다. 토양호흡속도는 지온(<TEX>$r^2=0.800$</TEX>) 및 기온(<TEX>$r^2=0.805$</TEX>)과 유의한 지수함수적 관계를 보였다. 지온과 기온에 대한 토양호흡속도의 <TEX>$Q_{10}$</TEX> 값은 각각 2.0과 1.9이었으며, 연간 총 토양 호흡량은 19.6ton <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> <TEX>$ha^{-1}$</TEX> 이었다. This study was conducted to quantify the soil respiratory <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> emission (SR) in an apple orchard and to determine its relationship with key environmental factors such as air temperature, soil temperature and soil moisture content. Experiment was made over the period from 23 April 2007 to 31 March 2008 in 'Fuji' apple orchard of National Institute of Horticultural and Herbal Science in Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, Korea. The SR was measured by using the automatic opening/closing chamber system based on a closed method. Diurnal variations in SR showed an increase around 0700 hours with increasing soil temperature, its peak between 1400 and 1500 hours, and then a gradual decrease thereafter. Daily variations in SR depended largely on soil and air temperatures over the year, ranging from 0.8 to 13.7 g <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> <TEX>$m^{-2}d^{-1}$</TEX>. During the rainy spell in summer (July<TEX>$\sim$</TEX>Autumn) with higher temperature and more precipitation, the SR was lower than that in the spring (May<TEX>$\sim$</TEX>June) with moderate temperature. The SR showed a significant exponential relationship with soil temperature (<TEX>$r^2=0.800$</TEX>) and air temperature (<TEX>$r^2=0.805$</TEX>), but not with soil moisture content (<TEX>$r^2=0.160$</TEX>). The <TEX>$Q_{10}$</TEX> values of SR with annual soil temperature and air temperature were 2.0 and 1.9, respectively. The annually integrated SR was 19.6 ton <TEX>$CO_2$</TEX> <TEX>$ha^{-1}$</TEX>.

Flebotomíneos (Diptera, Psychodidae) em reservas florestais da área metropolitana de São Luís, Maranhão, Brasil

This study deals with the diversity, relative abundance and seasonality of sandflies species in two modified primary forest fragments, situated at Sao Luis city, capital of the state of Maranhao. The sandflies were captured with the use of light traps, CDC (Center Control Disease) type, installed at the edge and in the center of the forest, at the height of 1.5 meter, being there from 6 p.m. up to 6 a.m., once per month, during a year time. An amount of 1,356 specimens from 23 species, which 21 belonged to genera Lutzomyia and two belonged to genera Brumptomyia, were captured. In the Sacavem forest reserve, 1,061 specimens were captured, resulting in a capture effort of 2.5 individuals/hour/trap, most of them L. longipalpis (44.8%), followed by L. antunesi (36.4%), L. sordelli (5.9%), L. flaviscutellata (3.9%) and L. whitmani (2.1%). The highest concentrations of species (11) and individuals (60.1%) occurred during the rainy period. In the Itaqui forest reserve, 295 specimens were collected and the capture effort was 0.2 individuals/hour/trap, most of them were L. flaviscutellata, (58.6%), L. sordelli (14.6%), L. longipalpis (7.1%), L. evandroi (6.4%), L. longipennis (3%), L. trinidadensis (2.7%) and L. whitmani (1.7%). The species were more frequent during the dry season (11) and specimens during the rainy spell (54.6%).

The Rainy Spell and Other Korean Stories

The Rainy Spell and Other Korean Stories

Foliar Sprays for Bollworm Control in Cotton, 1992:

Abstract Cotton was planted on 21 May at the Eastern Shore Agricultural Experiment Station, Painter, VA. Plant spacing was 3-4 plants/ft with 36 inches between rows. Temik 15 G (0.75 lb [AI]/acre) was applied in the furrow at planting. Each plot consisted of a double 25 ft row bordered on each side by an untreated border row, replicated 4 times in a RCB design. Sprays were applied with a single (TXVS 4) hollow cone nozzle backpack sprayer delivering 10 gal H2O/acre at 60 psi. Evaluation criteria consisted of numbers of damaged fruiting forms (bolls and squares) from 25 randomly chosen fruiting forms/plot. Due to an unusually cool, wet summer, BW pressure was very low and late. Egg threshold was exceeded on 2 Sep (28 eggs/100 terminals), and Dipel 2 X (2 lb product/acre) and Larvin 3.2 EC (0.25 lb (Ai/acre) were applied on 3 Sep. A cool, rainy spell occurred the following week, resulting in low survival of the eggs. Larval threshold occurred on 11 Sep (3-4 BW/100 fruiting forms) and all treatments were applied on 14 Sep.

Foliar Sprays for Bollworm Control in Cotton, 1992:

Abstract Cotton was planted on 21 May at the Eastern Shore Agricultural Experiment Station, Painter, VA. Plant spacing was 3-4 plants/ft with 36 inches between rows. Temik 15 G (0.75 lb [AI]/acre) was applied in the furrow at planting. Each plot consisted of a double 25 ft row bordered on each side by an untreated border row, replicated 4 times in a RCB design. Sprays were applied with a single (TXVS 4) hollow cone nozzle backpack sprayer delivering 10 gal H2O/acre at 60 psi. Evaluation criteria consisted of numbers of damaged fruiting forms (bolls and squares) from 25 randomly chosen fruiting forms/plot. Due to an unusually cool, wet summer, BW pressure was very low and late. Egg threshold was exceeded on 2 Sep (28 eggs/100 terminals), and Dipel 2 X (2 lb product/acre) and Larvin 3.2 EC (0.25 lb (Ai/acre) were applied on 3 Sep. A cool, rainy spell occurred the following week, resulting in low survival of the eggs. Larval threshold occurred on 11 Sep (3-4 BW/100 fruiting forms) and all treatments were applied on 14 Sep.