Rainwater Cisterns Research Articles

Sensitivity of sustainable urban drainage systems to precipitation events and malfunctions

Abstract In recent years, sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDSs) have become increasingly popular, sometimes taking over large parts of conventional stormwater management. SUDSs are usually designed using simple design procedures based on statistical rainfall data, without long-term simulations or real rainfall events. In addition, there is little experience of how SUDS respond to potential failures and malfunctions, often caused by ageing infrastructure and lack of asset management. Based on these two factors influencing the hydrological performance of SUDS, this study investigates the sensitivity of seven different SUDSs to rainfall events and malfunctions. The study was conducted using the SWMM 5.2 modeling software and the low impact development (LID) module was implemented for a period of 60 years. The SUDS are studied as individual infrastructure and as part of a small urban catchment. The results show that only the green roofs and rainwater cisterns have a statistically significant correlation between the length and return period of rain events and runoff values, with higher correlations for longer rain events. In contrast, the failures and malfunctions investigated can have a significant impact on the hydrological performance of SUDS. In particular, the design return period of SUDS was occasionally significantly exceeded for the strong malfunction scenarios studied.

De aanleg van regenbakken in vroegmodern Deventer

In recent years, many old cisterns for the collection of rainwater have been discovered in Dutch cities, in particular in Amsterdam. Such rainwater cisterns were for centuries an important source of fresh water. Most date from the second half of the sixteenth century onwards. They were especially prevalent in the western provinces, where the ground and surface water were mostly unpotable due to salinization and pollution. However, rainwater cisterns are also known to have existed in the eastern parts of the country. Yet very little is known about the architectural history of these cisterns in the Netherlands, especially for the period prior to the seventeenth century. While there are archaeological reports detailing specific aspects of their construction, the historical literature focuses on the use of rainwater cisterns by households and industry. There is a general lack of written sources describing the construction of cisterns prior to the seventeenth century.
 
 This article highlights one specific historical source that has not been fully studied, namely the accounts left by the stewards of the former ecclesiastical houses in the city of Deventer. After the city became part of the Dutch Republic in 1591, the ecclesiastical houses were confiscated by the city and extensively refurbished. This included the construction of rainwater cisterns in around 1600. The accounts of these works contain valuable notes regarding the construction process and maintenance of cisterns, the use of specific materials and the hiring of specialist workmen.
 The findings from these notes, as presented in this article, can be used to complement recent archaeological findings and contemporary architectural descriptions, thus providing insights for further research. The notes confirm, for example, that these rainwater cisterns were constructed underground by the same specialist, according to a specific design, using similar materials, such as bricks known as ‘klinkaerts’, and trass to create waterproof mortar. The construction of rainwater cisterns was sometimes accompanied by roof renovations designed to enhance the rainwater collection, as illustrated by an example. Ultimately, the article aims to show the relevance of such historical sources to furthering our knowledge of the construction history of rainwater cisterns in the Netherlands, in particular in the rather underexamined eastern parts of the country. Future research could aim to synthesize such historical sources with archaeological findings in order to arrive at a more comprehensive view of rainwater cisterns and their history in both the eastern and western Netherlands.

Energy–water nexus of formal and informal water systems in Beirut, Lebanon

Abstract Many areas in the world with chronic and intermittent water shortages rely on informal water systems for much of their daily water needs with water from tanker trucks, purchased bottled water, rainwater cisterns, or pumped well water. These alternative sources all require varying amounts of energy. Water–energy nexus studies have not yet considered environmental impacts of informal water sources, specifically from an energy intensity and carbon emissions perspective. This study compares energy use and carbon emissions per cubic meter and per capita for both formal and informal water sources for a neighborhood in Beirut Lebanon. Energy use and carbon emissions are calculated for three delivery stages per source including pumping, treatment and distribution. The results show that informal sources have the highest energy use and carbon emissions. From the total water delivered to households, they account for 83% of energy use and 72% of carbon emissions per capita, even though they only provide 23% of total delivered volume per capita. Bottled water and distribution of water by tanker trucks have the highest energy intensity values per cubic meter of all water sources. Moreover, internal building water pumping, which is not typically accounted for, takes up to 14% of total energy use and 23% of total carbon emissions per capita compared to other water sources. To address model uncertainty, we conduct a sensitivity analysis, showing that the base model presented reasonably stable results and identifying the most sensitive parameters for further research. While informal sources help communities overcome water shortages they result with negative impacts. Strategies are proposed to improve the environmental performance of the Lebanese electrical grid, reduce water losses, replace inefficient truck engines and incentivize household to invest in low carbon technologies.

The cistern-system of early modern Venice: technology, politics and culture in a hydraulic society

At a time when European cities depended on three sources of fresh water for their domestic and industrial needs—rivers, spring-fed aqueducts and groundwater wells—early modern Venice added a fourth possibility: a dense network of cisterns for capturing, filtering and storing rainwater. Venice was not unique in relying on rainwater cisterns; but nowhere in Italy (indeed in Europe) was the approach so systematic and widespread, the city concerned so populous, the technology so sophisticated and the management so carefully regulated as in the lagoon city. To explore Venice’s cistern-system, a range of primary sources (medical treatises, travellers’ accounts, archival records) and the contributions of architectural, medical and social historians, and archaeologists are analysed. The article examines the system’s functioning and management, including the role of the city’s acquaroli or watermen; the maintenance of freshwater quality throughout the city, in the context of broader sanitation measures; and the place of the “wells” and fresh water in daily life in Venice. As a means of teasing out the myriad links between nature, technology and society in early modern Italy, the article concludes with a brief comparison of the politics of water supply management in the very different urban realities of (republican) Venice, (viceregal) Naples and (papal) Rome.

The Development and Application of CISMOD 1.0, a New Computerized Tool for Designing Wildlife Rainwater Cisterns

This article reports on a case study of the research and development of a new tool to assist in the design of rainwater cisterns. A rainwater cistern is a way to improve wildlife habitat because it can be situated in locations that do not have natural water sources, such as streams or wells that can supply water for storage. However, the design and sizing of such a system can be challenging because a number of constantly varying factors must be considered, such as changing precipitation patterns, the evaporative losses from the cistern and animal water consumption. No standardized sizing methodology currently exists for designing wildlife rainwater cisterns. In this article we present a new method for assisting in optimally sizing a rainwater cistern. We discuss how we implemented the quantitative portion of this methodology into a new Excel? model called CISMOD, which we configured for general use by wildlife professionals. We describe the methodology for designing a rainwater cistern based on standard engineering techniques. We then present and discuss our experience in applying the model to design two rainwater cisterns in an area of the Jemez Mountains in northern New Mexico, USA. The CISMOD model and a user manual are available at no cost for wildlife professionals.

Estimated Radiation Doses Received by New Mexico Residents from the 1945 Trinity Nuclear Test

The National Cancer Institute study of projected health risks to New Mexico residents from the 1945 Trinity nuclear test provides best estimates of organ radiation absorbed doses received by representative persons according to ethnicity, age, and county. Doses to five organs/tissues at significant risk from exposure to radioactive fallout (i.e., active bone marrow, thyroid gland, lungs, stomach, and colon) from the 63 most important radionuclides in fresh fallout from external and internal irradiation were estimated. The organ doses were estimated for four resident ethnic groups in New Mexico (Whites, Hispanics, Native Americans, and African Americans) in seven age groups using: (1) assessment models described in a companion paper, (2) data on the spatial distribution and magnitude of radioactive fallout derived from historical documents, and (3) data collected on diets and lifestyles in 1945 from interviews and focus groups conducted in 2015-2017 (described in a companion paper). The organ doses were found to vary widely across the state with the highest doses directly to the northeast of the detonation site and at locations close to the center of the Trinity fallout plume. Spatial heterogeneity of fallout deposition was the largest cause of variation of doses across the state with lesser differences due to age and ethnicity, the latter because of differences in diets and lifestyles. The exposure pathways considered included both external irradiation from deposited fallout and internal irradiation via inhalation of airborne radionuclides in the debris cloud as well as resuspended ground activity and ingestion of contaminated drinking water (derived both from rivers and rainwater cisterns) and foodstuffs including milk products, beef, mutton, and pork, human-consumed plant products including leafy vegetables, fruit vegetables, fruits, and berries. Tables of best estimates of county population-weighted average organ doses by ethnicity and age are presented. A discussion of our estimates of uncertainty is also provided to illustrate a lower and upper credible range on our best estimates of doses. Our findings indicate that only small geographic areas immediately downwind to the northeast received exposures of any significance as judged by their magnitude relative to natural radiation. The findings presented are the most comprehensive and well-described estimates of doses received by populations of New Mexico from the Trinity nuclear test.

The role of material engineering within the concept of an integrated water resources management

By means of a case study, the successful implementation of a rheologically optimised cement-based mortar for the construction as well as for the rehabilitation of rain water cisterns is presented in this paper. The material was developed within the scope of a German–Indonesian joint project [“Integrated Water Resources Management” (IWRM)], funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. Comprehensive rheological investigations are presented which provide the database for the optimization of the mortar with regard to its intended range of application. For the selection of the source materials, special emphasis was placed on the ready availability at low cost. The rheological properties of the fresh mortar allow an easy workability by hand while the hardened mortar shows a durable and tight appearance at the same time. The developed material can be used as a coating for walls, floors and ceilings of cisterns, for the local rehabilitation of damaged areas only or even as a construction material for complete new cisterns. The future multiplication of the IWRM project results within the region was assured by a local capacity development when the presented material concept was applied in practise in Indonesia for the construction of sustainable rain water cisterns in Gunung Kidul.

Saving water--but at what cost?

Green Infrastructure![Figure][1] Green potable water systems can harbor elevated levels of pathogens PHOTO: © NORDICPHOTOS/ALAMY STOCK PHOTO Strategies to reduce water consumption in buildings may have some unintended consequences. Rainwater cisterns, solar water heaters, and other similar efforts minimize potable water use and reduce energy consumption, but they may also degrade water quality. In a survey of buildings with various green infrastructure, Rhoads et al. found that water age, which affects residual chlorine levels, pipe corrosion, and even taste, was significantly greater than that in a conventional home. Consistent with those findings, there were also orders of magnitude more opportunistic pathogens such as Legionella species in the green plumbing systems. Reducing water age by eliminating unnecessary storage and regularly flushing pipes may help green water efforts become more widely adopted. Environ. Sci. Water Res. Technol. 10.1039/C5EW00221D (2016). [1]: pending:yes

Life cycle based evaluation of harvested rainwater use in toilets and for irrigation

Harvested rainwater is an alternative water source for buildings, especially for non-potable uses such as irrigation and toilet flushing. While rainwater harvesting is perceived as a sustainable design approach, there is limited information on the environmental and economic performance of this technology. To address this literature gap, life cycle assessment and life cycle costing tools were applied for a dormitory that could potentially use harvested rainwater to flush toilets or to irrigate the lawn. Five scenarios were modeled including a new versus renovated building and irrigation versus toilet flushing water end use. The rainwater cisterns for all the scenarios were sized using the Yield After Spillage approach and long term daily precipitation of Toledo. Energy and greenhouse gas emissions were calculated using Economic Input Output Life Cycle Assessment (for construction phase and energy use by pump) and GaBi (for water and wastewater treatment) databases. The life cycle environmental impacts and costs were estimated and compared to the business as usual scenario, where the water supply demands are met by municipally supplied potable water in a combined or separate sanitary sewer network. It was discovered that energy and greenhouse gas emission payback periods can be achieved for almost every scenario. Yet cost payback periods of implementing harvested rainwater were found to be longer than the life time of the building except for two scenarios: using rainwater for irrigation in a renovation project and using rainwater for toilet flushing in a new construction project. These two scenarios had the lowest cost, energy and greenhouse gas emission impacts among all scenarios modeled. Reducing occupancy to match toilet flushing demand increased the per person impact. However, in general, the per person impacts were much lower than a person's impact from driving or electricity use. While separate sewers divert the stormwater runoff to the water bodies and thereby prevent the environmental problems resulting from combined sewer overflows, a rainwater harvesting system connected to separate sewers was found to reduce the energy and greenhouse gas emissions less than so if the rainwater harvesting system were connected to combined sewers.

Reducing occurrence of Giardia duodenalis in children living in semiarid regions: impact of a large scale rainwater harvesting initiative.

BackgroundIn Brazil, about two million people living in rural semiarid regions were benefited with the construction of rainwater cement cisterns, as an initiative from the program “One Million Cisterns” (P1MC). Nevertheless, few epidemiological studies have been conducted to assess health risks or protection effects associated with consumption of this water source. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether access to rainwater harvesting cisterns is associated with the decrease in the occurrence of Giardia duodenalis infections in children, compared to other children living in households supplied by other water sources.Methodology/Principal FindingsA quasi-experimental study with two concurrent cohorts was developed in two rural municipalities of the semiarid region of Brazil. A sample of 664 children, aged between 4 months and 5 years old, was followed up, of which 332 had access to rainwater cisterns (cistern group) and 332 did not, having water supplied from alternative sources (comparison group). In a period of approximately one year (2010) intestinal parasites were investigated in feces three times. The prevalence of G. duodenalis in children from the cistern group ranged from 4.8 to 10.5%, while the prevalence in the comparison group ranged from 7.6 to 16.7%. Multivariate analysis (GEE) showed a higher risk of G. duodenalis infection in children who did not have access to rainwater cisterns, when compared to children who did (OR 1.72; 95% CI 1.14–2.59). The other variables associated with G. duodenalis infection were: number of rooms per house (OR 0.89; 95% CI 0.80–0.99); family income (OR0.48; 95% CI 0.26–0.88); birth order (OR 1.72; 95% CI 1.17–2.51); preterm children (OR 1.70; 95% CI 1.19–2.43); and improper hand hygiene prior to food preparation (OR 4.78; 95% CI 1.95–11.76).Conclusions/SignificanceOwnership of a rainwater cistern is associated with a lower prevalence of G. duodenalis infection in children after adjustment for environmental and family-related factors. Nevertheless, the study suggests the necessity to complement physical interventions with actions related to personal and domestic hygiene to enable further reductions in parasite infections affecting mainly the underprivileged populations.

Development of an Appropriate Mortar for Sustainable Rain Water Cisterns

The knowledge of the rheological properties of cement based building materials is of outstanding significance for their workability and applicability. However it usually takes extensive efforts to optimize those materials as their rheological properties may differ in a wide range depending on the physical properties of the selected source materials. By means of a case study the successful implementation of a rheologically optimized cement-based mortar for the construction of rain water cisterns is presented in this paper. The material was developed within the scope of a German-Indonesian joint project, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), where the storage, distribution and treatment of water has to be assured by durable concrete structures. Comprehensive rheological investigations are presented which provide the database for the optimization of the mortar with regard to its intended range of application. For the selection of the source materials, special emphasis was placed on the ready availability at low cost. The rheological properties of the fresh mortar allow an easy workability by hand while the hardened mortar shows a durable and tight appearance at the same time. The developed rehabilitation mortar can be used as a coating for walls, floors and ceilings of cisterns. The future multiplication of the project results within the region was assured by a local capacity building when the material concept was applied in practice in Indonesia for the construction of sustainable rain water cisterns in Gunung Kidul.

Drought monitoring for rooftop rainwater-harvesting systems

The drought in the eastern Caribbean during the latter part of 2009 and the first quarter of 2010 has revealed the vulnerability of these Caribbean islands to droughts. In islands such as the Grenadines in the south of the eastern Caribbean, where the principal source of water supply is harvested rainwater stored in cisterns, an emerging challenge is one of meeting household water needs during periods of extreme low rainfall. Drought monitoring and forecasting are essential tools for appropriate decision making for water management in households that are dependent on harvested rainwater. This paper considers a simple model that could be used by local authorities for rainwater-harvesting management to reduce the risks and impacts of extremely severe water shortages during extended periods of low rainfall. Specifically, the use of the deciles method and standardised drought indices in addition to simulated performances of rainwater cisterns were used in this study to facilitate decision making.

Study on the Effective Volume Determination of Rainwater Cistern in City Districts

As a crucial part of rainwater utilization engineering, the design of the cistern size has a great influence on the project investment and efficient operation of systems. In this study, the mathematical models of relationship among the effective volume, investment and water-saving benefits are established based on the rainfall data of typical year. With the help of these models, we can calculate the effective volume of rainwater cisterns, then analyze the engineering benefits and demonstrate the feasibility of the project. So this paper offers reference for the effective volume determination of rainwater cistern in city districts.

Planning of LID–BMPs for urban runoff control: The case of Beijing Olympic Village

In this paper, a planning analysis of implementing low impact development (LID) type of stormwater best management practices (BMPs) for urban runoff control is presented. The Beijing Olympic Village (BOV) residential area in China was used as a case study. The original BOV stormwater system incorporated some LID BMPs such as porous pavements, green roofs and rainwater cisterns. After the 2008 Olympics, the BOV was converted to a residential complex and some stormwater facilities were modified for landscaping purposes. The performance of the original stormwater management system at the BOV residential area was first evaluated by using the model BMPDSS. BMPDSS is a best management practice (BMP) planning and analysis tool, which is capable of simulating BMP performance and optimizing BMP placement and design. The Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) was used to simulate pipe network hydraulics for the BOV. The present study then examined the performance associated with the BMP modifications for landscaping purposes, and then further BMP modifications designed for enhancing runoff control capabilities of the system. Using the 2008 rainfall data for Beijing, peak flow rate and runoff volume reductions under the three scenarios were calculated by using the coupled SWMM–BMPDSS framework and compared. Optimization analysis for BMP design aimed at achieving either maximum runoff control or total minimum system cost was then conducted. The results were used to form recommendations to the Beijing authorities for modifying the present stormwater management system in order to achieve more runoff control benefits.

Performance of rainwater harvesting systems in the southeastern United States

Recent severe droughts, concerns over the environmental impact of stormwater runoff and increased water demands have generated interest in rainwater harvesting systems in humid, well developed regions, such as the southeastern United States. In order to evaluate the use of rainwater harvesting systems in this region, a monitoring study was conducted at three rainwater cisterns in North Carolina, a computer model was developed to simulate system performance, and simulations were conducted for 208 l rain barrels and larger cisterns. Results of the monitoring study showed that the rainwater harvesting systems were underutilized, which was suspected to result from poor estimation of water usage and public perception of the harvested rainwater. The computer model simulated system performance by evaluating a water balance using historical rainfall data and anticipated usage. Simulation results showed that a rain barrel was frequently depleted when used to meet household irrigation demands and overflowed during most rainfall events. Simulations also illustrated the improved performance of large systems while providing an indication of diminishing returns for increased cistern capacity.

Novel heating and cooling concept employing rainwater cisterns and thermo-active building systems for a residential building

This paper introduces and evaluates a novel heating and cooling concept employing thermo-active building systems and environmental energy, harnessed from two 11-m 3 rainwater cisterns for a 285-m 2 residential building in passive house standard in Germany. The building strives for a significantly reduced primary energy use with carefully coordinated measures, such as high quality building envelope, by means of vacuum insulated panels, supply and exhaust air system with heat recovery, reduced solar heat gains (solar shading), and the integration of thermal solar collectors and photovoltaic in the plant system. On this premise, a comprehensive long-term monitoring in high time-resolution was carried out for the building for two years with an accompanying commissioning of the building performance. Measurements comprise the energy use for heating, cooling, and ventilation, as well as the auxiliary equipment, the performance of the environmental heat source and sink (rainwater cistern), thermal comfort, and local climatic site conditions. The analysis focuses on the performance and the efficiency of rainwater cisterns as natural heat source and sink as well as the heat pump system. The paper discusses the performance of thermo-active building systems, investigates the thermal comfort, determines the efficiency of the heating/cooling system, and evaluates the total end and primary energy use of the building.

The chemical water quality in roof-harvested water cisterns in Bermuda

The chemical quality of water stored in roof-harvested rainwater cisterns and used for domestic consumption in Bermuda was assessed by analyzing a suite of metal and metalloid elements, major ions, pH and conductivity in water and sediment from 112 and 36 private residences, respectively. The chemical quality of water was good, with a low incidence of health-based primary drinking water standards being exceeded: < 1% for Pb and Se and < 3% for nitrate. in nearly all cases these could be accounted for by unapproved use of unregistered groundwater wells to supplement the water supply. Sediment which accumulates in the water cisterns was found to have elevated concentrations of some elements, similar to local soil. In particular, the concentration of arsenic (As) in cistern sediment exceeded the U.S. EPA generic soil screening limits (SSL) for human ingestion of soil at all 36 locations sampled. Additionally, Pb and Hg exceeded the SSL at 4 (11%) and 1 (3%) sites, respectively. However, there are no standards or guidelines in existence with which to fully assess the sediment data. Further research needs are identified which will allow a human health-based risk assessment to be conducted to enable such standards to be developed.

Longevity of pathogenic bacteria especially salmonella in cistern water

Cistern-collected rain water which is used as process water for toilet flushing, cleaning purposes, garden irrigation and linen washing, was experimentally contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, Salmonella enteritidis, Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter jejuni. The longevity of those pathogens was investigated considering different temperatures and contents of organic materials. Neither Salmonella enteritidis, Yersinia enterocolitica nor Campylobacter jejuni are able to grow at temperatures of 5°C, 15°C, 20°C or 37°C. The most sensitive pathogen was Campylobacter jejuni which showed rapidly decreasing of colony counts at 15°C as compared with Yersinia enterocolitica or Salmonella enteritidis. For Salmonella enteritidis the decrease of bacterial concentrations was higher at 37°C thanat 5°C. Increasing the concentrations of organic compounds by addition of bacteriological pepton or addition of extrem amounts of pidgeon feces lowers the rate of bacterial death but an increase in colony counts could not be observed at the different temperatures investigated. The elimination of salmonella is supported if the cisterns are layered with a biofilm and sediment. So it could be confirmed, that raised amounts of organic material, pidgeon feces together with optimal temperatures which can be observed accidentaly in rain water cisterns can not enhance growth of enteropathogenic bacteria.

Experience with a Submerged Pipe Line in the Puerto Barrios Water Works

Puerto Barrios is the Atlantic seaport of Guatemala, the most populous of the Central American republics. For many years the rich interior sought a railroad connection to this outlet, finally realizing it in 1908. The president, Manuel Estrada Cabrera, recognized that the strip of sand-edged swamp called Barrios was destined to become important, and at the inauguration of the railroad in January, 1908, solicited a proposition for the complete sanitation of the port, that it might become in appearance, convenience and healthfulness, worthy of its importance as the eastern gateway of the republic. A substantial appropriation for the necessary studies and for provisional cleaning, ditching and other works of sanitation was made. The writer was designated to prepare the report and estimate of cost. The report presented in the spring of 1909, called for about 3,000,000 cubic yards of filling, a sea wall, drains, sewers, water system, pavements and parks. The total cost proved too great for immediate execution. At the date mentioned, the terminal comprised a wharf, railroad station, round house, hotel, custom house, government house and a few scattered wooden residences, with a beach line of thatched cabins. The water supply depended upon rain-water cisterns and a 2-inch pipe well deriving water from a stratum of coarse sand 100 feet below the surface at a point about half a mile inland. Natural growth of traffic and population brought the place face to face with a water famine, forcing the railroad company to introduce an adequate supply. The most available source was a mountain stream 7| miles away, as measured by a practicable land line, or 5§ miles by a route in part across an arm of the bay. The submerged portion on the latter route was about 15,000 feet in length. The water attained a maximum depth of 24 feet. The bottom was