Radon Inhalation Research Articles

Geant4 Monte Carlo simulation of human exposure to indoor 222Rn from building materials

The present study aimed to develop a Monte Carlo model to estimate the annual effective dose due to radon exposure sourced by radon gas in the walls and floor of a standard model room. With the purpose of developing a tool for radon level assessment in dwellings and workplaces, Geant4 toolkit was used to simulate the energy deposited by gamma rays emitted by radioactive radon progeny in a water phantom positioned at three different locations within the model room. The energy deposition was then used to estimate the annual effective dose through a deterministic approach. The simulation outcomes showed good agreement with experimental data, with the ratio between the simulated and the experimental data displaying the overestimation by a factor of approximately 1.09. Both simulation and experimental data fell within the same range, with a relative deviation of 7.7%. Additionally, the influence of various parameters, such as receptor position in the room, wall, and floor thicknesses, wall cover, and building material bulk density, on the annual effective dose due to radon inhalation in the room was evaluated. Geant4 Monte Carlo toolkit proved to be a reliable tool for radon modeling in real exposure situations.

Effect of Radon Inhalation on Murine Brain Proteins: Investigation Using Proteomic and Multivariate Analyses.

Radon is a known risk factor for lung cancer; however, it can be used beneficially, such as in radon therapy. We have previously reported the enhancement of antioxidant effects associated with trace amounts of oxidative stress as one of the positive biological effects of radon inhalation. However, the biological effects of radon inhalation are incompletely understood, and more detailed and comprehensive studies are required. Although several studies have used proteomics to investigate the effects of radon inhalation on body proteins, none has focused on brain proteins. In this study, we evaluated the expression status of proteins in murine brains using proteomic and multivariate analyses to identify those whose expressions changed following two days of radon inhalation at a concentration of 1,500 Bq/m3. We found associations of radon inhalation with the expressions of seven proteins related to neurotransmission and heat shock. These proteins may be proposed as biomarkers indicative of radon inhalation. Although further studies are required to obtain the detailed biological significance of these protein alterations, this study contributes to the elucidation of the biological effects of radon inhalation as a low-dose radiation.

Effective dose assessment due to inhalation of 222Rn, 220Rn, and their progeny: highlighting the major contribution of thoron in a thoron-prone area in Cameroon.

To assess public exposure to radon, thoron, and their progeny, measurements were conducted in 50 dwellings within the bauxite-rich area of Fongo-Tongo in western Cameroon. Passive integrating radon-thoron discriminative detectors (specifically RADUET) were employed for radon and thoron measurements. Additionally, concentrations of short-lived radon and thoron progeny were estimated using Direct Radon Progeny Sensors (DRPSs) and Direct Thoron Progeny Sensors (DTPSs) based on LR-115 detectors. The findings revealed indoor radon concentrations ranging from 31 to 123Bqm-3 with a geometric mean (GM) of 62Bqm-3, and indoor thoron concentrations ranging from 36 to 688Bqm-3 with a GM of 242Bqm-3. The Equilibrium Equivalent Radon Concentration (EERC) ranged from 3 to 86Bqm-3 with a GM of 25Bqm-3, while the Equilibrium Equivalent Thoron Concentration (EETC) ranged from 1.2 to 12.5Bqm-3 with a GM of 7.6Bqm-3. Notably, all dwellings recorded radon concentrations below 100Bqm-3. Arithmetic means of radon and thoron equilibrium factors were calculated as 0.47 and 0.04, respectively. To assess annual effective doses from radon and thoron inhalation, equilibrium factors were used along with direct measurements of EERC and EETC. The differences observed in annual effective doses were 4.5% for radon and 42.5% for thoron. Furthermore, the contribution of thoron and its decay products to the annual effective dose from radon, thoron, and their progeny ranged from 12 to 94%, with an average contribution of 58%. Thus, this study found that the effective dose due to thoron inhalation in the study area exceeded that due to radon inhalation. It is concluded that, when evaluating radiation doses and health risks, it is crucial to consider both thoron and its progeny alongside radon and its progeny. This underscores the importance of considering direct measurements for accurately estimating radiation doses.

Exploring the Disparity in Indoor/Outdoor Time and Radon Exposure as Possible Factors Contributing to the Unexpected Increase in Lung Cancer Risk among Non-Smoking Women.

According to a NIH study, Lung cancer among individuals who have never smoked is more prevalent in women and occurs at an earlier age than in smokers. The rise in lung cancer rates among female non-smokers might be linked to radon inhalation and should be further investigated. Our theory is based on the differences in radon exposure between males and females, which can be attributed to the variations in time spent indoors versus outdoors. Over the past few years, the smoking rates have shown a steady decline in the United States and other developed countries. This decrease in smoking prevalence has led to a new shift in the primary risk factors associated with lung cancer. Although tobacco smoke historically served as the primary cause of lung cancer, the reduction in smoking rates has allowed other risk factors, such as radon exposure, to come to the forefront. Given that women in certain countries, on average, might spend more time indoors compared to men, they are potentially exposed to higher levels of radon. This increased exposure could explain the rising rates of lung cancer among female non-smokers. The theory is still in its nascent stages and requires further research and validation. However, if proven correct, it could significantly alter our understanding of lung cancer risk factors and lead to new prevention. It is therefore crucial to expedite the review and publication of this theory, given its potential implications for public health.

Assessment of radon levels in indoor workplaces in Tunisia and associated radiological risks

ABSTRACT This study aimed to assess indoor radon levels within different workplaces in Tunisia, including universities, schools, spa centres, and phosphate fertiliser factories. A total of 110 locations within these workplaces were monitored using solid-state nuclear track detectors (LR 115). The obtained results indicated that the geometric mean (GM) values of indoor radon concentrations measured at these locations were 24.6 Bq m−3 for universities, 31.3 Bq m−3 for schools, 72.2 Bq m−3 for spa centres, and 70.0 Bq m−3 for phosphate fertiliser factories. Overall, the GM of indoor radon concentrations measured in the four studied workplaces remained below standard values. Statistical analysis using the two-sample Student t-test revealed significant differences between the workplaces. The calculated annual effective doses due to radon inhalation were found to have GM values of 0.2 mSv y−1 for universities, 0.2 mSv y−1 for schools, 0.5 mSv y−1 for spa centres, and 0.4 mSv y−1 for phosphate fertiliser factories. These values are comparable to worldwide average values. Other risk parameters, such as lung cancer risk and lung cancer cases were also determined and reported in this study. While this study did not investigate the factors influencing radon concentrations, its primary advantage lies in being the first comparative study monitoring various workplaces in Tunisia, covering both underground and above-ground settings.

Study of the filtration efficiency of radon progeny in facial masks

Radon exposure is the second-leading environmental cause of lung cancer, therefore finding ways to reduce the radon inhalation dose is a priority objective. Inhalation dose is calculated considering two contributions, the radon gas on the one hand and its progeny on the other. This paper studies the effectiveness of face masks (surgical masks, FFP2 and FFP3) to reduce the contribution of radon descendants that pass into the respiratory tract and thus reduce associated inhalation doses. To analyze the radon filtering potential of these masks, a continuous radon monitor has been used to estimate the radon concentration and the Potential Alpha Energy Concentration with and without facial masks. The data registered by this monitor, together with an error minimization algorithm developed in Matlab®, allow the Equilibrium Equivalent Concentration to be calculated. These results make it possible to compare the inhalation doses received by a person not wearing or wearing different types of masks, obtaining a dose reduction of 64% for surgical masks compared to the study without mask, a reduction of 71% for FFP2 and 72% for FFP3 masks.

Radiological environmental impact assessment for phosphate industry in Korea

NORM is used as a raw material in various industries worldwide. According to the IAEA, radiological effects may occur in the environment due to raw materials and by-products generated from NORM industries. The objective of this study was to assess radiological environmental impact of the phosphate processing industry to identify the radiological effects on the general public. The resident farmer scenario was chosen as the exposure scenario due to the living characteristics of the public around the facility and the conservatism of the assessment. The RESRAD-OFFSITE code was used to evaluate the radiation dose to the public. The maximum radiation dose to the public was 6.13 × 10−3 mSv/y. Main exposure pathways were aquatic food ingestion, radon inhalation, and meat ingestion. The uranium series accounted for about 99 % of the total radiation dose, while the thorium series and K-40 nuclides accounted for less than 1 %. These study results can be used for management of radiological impact to the public around domestic NORM industries.

Determination Of Heavy Metals and Radon Concentration in Soil and Water Samples from Wadi-B Jere Oil Exploration Sites in Maiduguri, Northeast Nigeria

Radon gas and heavy metals are two significant risk factors that can cause lung cancer. Wadi B, a locality in Jere local government of Borno state, is an area where oil exploration is underway. There is a potential health risk of contamination of the drinking water and soil samples in the area. To investigate radon concentration and heavy metal contamination, several samples of water from wells and boreholes, as well as soil samples, were collected for analysis. The analysis was conducted using liquid scintillation (LSC) and atomic absorption spectrometry. The result of radioactivity analysis using LSC shows that water samples have varying levels of radon concentration ranging from 17.77 Bql-1 to 22.50Bql-1 which exceeded the maximum contaminant levels of 11.1Bq/L set by the USEPA 1999 and the world average value of 10Bq/L set by the World Health Organisation (WHO 2004). The mean annual effective cancer risk of radon intake varied across sampling points, ranging from 0.164, 0.246, 0.287 to 0.130, 0.218, and 0.227 for adults, children, and infants, respectively, with mean values of 0.146, 0.219, and 0.255. The mean values of excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) associated with radon inhalation and ingestion for adults, children, and infants were 0.0005110, 0.0007660, and 0.0008930, respectively. Moreover, elevated conductivity and total dissolved solids in water samples suggest potential contamination, exceeding the recommended limits set by the World Health Organization. On the other hand, Heavy metals analysis shows a mean value of ELCR 0.125009 for adults and 0.000063 for infants. Results showed that heavy metal concentrations in soil samples exceeded permissible limits for all metals except chromium and lead, with the order of concentration being Cr < Cd < Pb < Cu < Zn. These findings underscore the need for ongoing monitoring and remediation efforts to mitigate environmental and health risks in Wadi B

Soil and air radon/thoron exhalation rates and radon activity concentrations in the vicinity of Lake Monoun, West region of Cameroon

ABSTRACTOne crucial element to determine the radon amount in the environment is the rate at which radon is exhaled from the subsurface. To assess the radon and thoron potential exhalation in the vicinity of Monoun Lake in the West Region of Cameroon, 28 soil samples were collected around the lake. Radon activity concentration in soil gas and air and the related risk to radon inhalation were evaluated. Radon and thoron exhalation rates, mass exhalation rates, and radon soil gas activity concentrations were derived from a mathematical model as a function of radium content and soil parameters. Radium activity concentrations were estimated using a gamma-ray spectrometry technique with a High Purity Germanium detector (HPGe). The average radon exhalation rate, thoron exhalation rate, radon mass exhalation rate, and thoron mass exhalation rate were found to be 22.7 mBq.m−2.s−1, 5348 mBq.m−2.s−1, 0.018 mBq.kg−1.s−1, and 321 mBq.kg−1.s−1, respectively. The registered radon and thoron exhalation rates were above the world average values of 16 Bq.m−2.s−1 and 1000 Bq.m−2.s−1 published by UNSCEAR, respectively. The calculated thoron exhalation in the study area was about 75.3 times higher than that of radon, which suggests probably more exposure to thoron gas than the radon in the area, despite its shorter half-life. A good positive correlation was found between radon and thoron exhalation rates. The obtained average values of radon activity concentrations in air and annual effective dose were above the world average values of 10 Bq.m−3 and 0.095 mSv published by UNSCEAR, but still below the threshold values of 148 Bq.m−3 and 1.4 mSv set as action levels by USEPA, respectively.

Breakthrough on radon individual monitoring and protecting miners by novel dual-function monitor on respirator

Breakthrough is made on inventing, producing and applying novel dual-function passive individual radon monitor in canister on respirators for radon inhalation monitoring and protecting individuals in particular miners. The rationale in this invention is having individual monitors for determining actual naturally inhaled radon by individuals and protection against particulates in one device. The monitor comprises two passive polycarbonate track detectors (PCTD); one near canister orifice (PCTD/bare), and one under activated carbon fabric (PCTD/ACF) to detect alphas of radon adsorbed on ACF carbon active sites. The PCTD/ACF detects radon with 12.7 times more sensitivity than PCTD/bare; called “Forced Amplification Factor (FAF)”. Monitors were successfully operated and calibrated in laboratory radon chamber using low suction rate pump resembling human natural inhalation. The performance of monitor showed high promises for radon individual monitoring and protection. This novel development also opens new horizons for fundamental and practical scientific research to further upgrade the monitor.

Evaluation of the Radon Levels in the Groundwater Wells of Qatar: Radiological Risk Assessment

The objective of this work is to give a holistic overview of the groundwater quality in Qatar in terms of its radon levels and provide a radiological risk assessment of elevated radon levels on human health. This study covered the analysis of groundwater collected from various locations throughout Qatar and maps using ArcGIS followed by a radiological risk assessment of radon in Qatar. There is no extensive study reported to investigate radon activity levels in groundwater across Qatar and their health effects. The radon level measurements of the Qatari groundwater ranged between 2.7 ± 0.2 and 60.7 ± 13.4 Bq/L with a mean value of 20.6 Bq/L, which is greater than the US EPA’s maximum contamination level (11 Bq/L). About 65% of the studied samples exceeded the US EPA’s MCL guidelines. The mean total annual effective dose due to radon inhalation and ingestion was 0.056 mSv/y, which is below the WHO reference level of 0.1 mSv/y. The radon radiological risk study through inhalation and ingestion clearly revealed that the contribution of the inhalation dose was higher than the ingestion dose.

Age-dependent Radiological Risk Assessment of Radon (222Rn) in Samples of Commercial Bottled Water from Benin City, Nigeria

Radon inhalation as well as ingestion through the use of water has a high potential of causing serious harm to sensitive cells and organs of the body when absorbed into the bloodstream. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the radiological health damage caused by radon in drinking bottled water available in Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria. Radon concentration was measured using a RAD7 electronic radon detector. The mean activity concentration radon is 137.18 ± 0.25 mBq/L. This mean value is slightly higher than 0.1 Bq/L recommended by the Standard Organisation of Nigeria but lower than the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 11.1 Bq/L set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and 100 Bq/L set by the World Health Organisation (WHO) for consumption of radon in drinking water. The mean total annual effective dose is 1.07±1.91 (\(\mu\)Sv/y) for infants, 0.61±1.09 (\(\mu\)Sv/y) for children, and 0.70±1.24 (\(\mu\)Sv/y) for adults. The computed annual effective dose to the public by inhalation and ingestion radon through the use of bottled water in the study areas are lower than the 0.1 mSv/y limit recommended by WHO. The estimated average for the age group excess lifetime cancer risk are 3.21 ± 5.71, 1.836 ± 3.26, 2.086 ± 3.71 (x 10-6) for infants, children and adults respectively. These values are below the world average permissible levels. Hence, consumption of the water examined poses no serious health risk to consumers.

Radiological Risk Assessment of Radon Inhalation in Offices of Selected Institutions in Southwestern Nigeria

The deleterious health implication of human exposure to radon gas has attracted considerable research attention worldwide. Thus, with the increase in number of tertiary institutions in Nigeria whose population predominantly comprises the youth and adults in their productive years. This study hereby estimates the radiological risk associated with radon inhalation induced by the geological of selected tertiary institutions in Southwestern Nigeria. The radon concentration was assessed with Electret Passive Environmental Radon Monitor (E-PERM). The lithology and age of the buildings were also considered for probable effect on the radon concentration. The value of the radon concentration ranged between 2.60 to 219.57 Bqm-3. The lithology feature on which each building was constructed as well as the age of the building was also found to influence the indoor radon concentration. The radiological indices of the rooms ranged from 0.018 to 1.518 mSvy-1 for annual effective dose (AED), 0.004 to 0.335 WLMy-1 for annual exposure (AE), and 1.98 x 10-6 to 1.67 x 10-4 MPY-1 for excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR). Hence, there is need for continuous education of the people to take adequate preventive measures in mitigating indoor radon level.

Determination of the radiation dose from radon ingestion and inhalation in different types of drinking water samples collected from Bethlehem province –Palestine

The objective of this study is to investigate the levels of radon gas and increase public awareness of its hazards to health in Bethlehem governorate- Palestine. The concentrations of radon-222 and radium- 226 in 79 different types of water samples were measured. The average values of radon and radium concentrations in tap water, rainwater, groundwater, and mineral water samples were 0.93 Bq/ℓ and 45.5 Bq/kg, 1.01 Bq/ℓ and 49.3 Bq/kg, 1.21 Bq/ℓ and 59.3 Bq/kg, and 0.60 Bq/ℓ and 29.2 Bq/kg, respectively. All the measured radon concentrations in the collected samples were within the limit of 11 Bq/ℓ established by UNSCEAR in 1982. The annual effective doses for ingestion and inhalation due to radon in water were calculated for adults, children, and infants using parameters introduced by UNSCEAR in 2000. The results show that there is no significant risk to public health from radon inhalation or ingestion through drinking water in the study region.

A window into the future: case study of long-term radiological risk modelling posed by unregulated mining waste repurposing activities.

The study aims to assess long-term radiological exposure risks and effects to both industrial workers and occupants living in the near vicinity of local tailing processing plants. The detrimental effects of licensing exemption were studied by comparing contaminated soil collected from 7 unlicensed-by the Atomic Energy Licensing Board-tailing processing plants with soil from control location. It was found that the average concentration of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K for all seven processing plants fell between the range of 0.1 ± 0.0-7.21 ± 0.1 Bqg-1, 0.1 ± 0.0-16.34 ± 0.27 Bqg-1, and 0.18 ± 0.01-1.74 ± 0.01 Bqg-1, respectively, showing observable indication of soil contamination with Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive (TENORM) material. The annual effective dose was calculated which showed that most samples exceeded the recommended value of the ICRP of 1 mSvy-1 for non-radiation workers. Assessment of radiological hazards in the environment was done by calculating the radium equivalent value; revealing the exposure risk posed by the contaminated soil is substantial. Using the relatable inputs, the RESRAD-ONSITE computed code revealed that the dose due to internal exposure via inhalation of radon gas contributes the most to the overall exposure. The covering of the contaminated soil with a clean layer is effective in reducing external dose but ineffective for radon inhalation. RESRAD-OFFSITE computer code also revealed that the contribution of exposure via contaminated soil in the neighbouring vicinity is below the recommended 1 mSvy-1 threshold but still contributes to a significant amount cumulatively when considering other exposure pathways as well. The study proposes the introduction of clean cover soil as a viable option in reducing external dose from contaminated soil as 1m of clean cover soil is able to reduce dose exposure by 23.8-30.5%.

Indoor radon survey in Whitehorse, Canada, and dose assessment

Radon-222 (222Rn) and its decay products are the primary sources of a population’s exposure to background ionizing radiation. Radon decay products are the leading cause of lung cancer for non-smokers and the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking for smokers. A community-driven long-term radon survey was completed in 232 residential homes in different subdivisions of Whitehorse, the capital of the Yukon, during the heating season from November to April in 2016–2017 and in 2017–2018. Radon concentrations were measured in living rooms and bedrooms on ground floors. The arithmetic and geometric means of indoor radon activity concentrations in different subdivisions of Whitehorse ranged from 52 ± 0.6 Bq m−3 and 37 ± 2.3 Bq m−3 in the Downtown area of Whitehorse to 993.0 ± 55.0 Bq m−3 and 726.2 ± 2.4 Bq m−3 in Wolf Creek. Underlying geology and glacial surfaces may partly explain these variations of indoor radon concentrations in subdivisions of Whitehorse. A total of 78 homes (34.0%) had radon concentrations higher than 100 Bq m−3, 47 homes (20.5%) had concentrations higher than 200 Bq m−3 and 33 homes (14.4%) had concentrations higher than 300 Bq m−3. The indoor radon contribution to the annual effective inhalation dose to residents ranged from 3.0 mSv in the Downtown area to 51.0 mSv in Wolf Creek. The estimated annual average dose to adults in Whitehorse, Yukon, is higher than the world’s average annual effective dose of 1.3 mSv due to the inhalation of indoor radon. The annual radon inhalation effective dose was assessed using radon measurements taken during winter; hence the assessed dose may be overestimated. Cost-efficient mitigation methods are available to reduce radon in existing buildings and to prevent radon entry into new buildings.

Assessment of annual effective dose due to inhalation and ingestion of radon from groundwater at Kantharawichai District, Maha Sarakham Province

Assessment of annual effective dose due to inhalation (Dinh) and ingestion (Ding) of radon from 43 groundwater samples at Kantharawichai District, Maha Sarakham Province using Radon Gas Monitor ATMOS 12 DPX. The results were as follows: 1. radon concentrations ranged from 1.04 – 21.87 Bq/L with a mean of 8.26±3.77 Bq/L, 2. The Dinh ranged from 2.60 – 54.69 μSv/y with a mean of 20.70±9.40 μSv/y. The Ding ranged from 0.19 – 3.94 μSv/y with a mean of 1.50±0.70 μSv/y, 3. The annual effective dose on organs, namely the dose on lungs (Dlung) ranged from 6.26 – 131.24 μSv/y with a mean of 49.60±22.70 μSv/y, and the dose for stomach (Dstomach) is 0.45 – 9.45 μSv/y with a mean of 3.60±1.60 μSv/y, and 4. The mean of excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR×10-4) in males was 0.90±0.40 and in females, it was 0.96±0.44. The results will be compared with the action levels of various organizations, including. The maximum allowable radon concentration in water is 11.1 Bq/L, according to US EPA, and the allowable annual effective dose is 100 μSv/y, in accordance with WHO. Analysis of results can signify the health safety of radon inhalation and ingestion of groundwater from the study area.

ҚОШҚАР-АТА УЛЫ КӨЛІ БЕТІНІҢ БУЛАНУЫНЫҢ АЛДЫН АЛУ

Nurbayeva Farida Kuantkhanovna Candidate of technical sciences, associate professor, Sh.Yessenov Caspian state university of technology and engineering, Аktau, Kazakhstan PREVENTION OF EVAPORATION OF THE SURFACE OF LAKE KOSHKAR-ATA Abstract. The Koshkar-Ata waste storage, which has no natural runoff, has been used for many years to collect chemical and metallurgical products, a chemical hydrometallurgical plant and a sulfuric acid plant, to store transported solid waste, to store seawater, which then turns into steam, "acidic water" (untreated running water) was used as a source of reception for household needs of the upper small areas). The technogenic impact of such sources of environmental damage, the ecological danger lies in the pollution of groundwater and the possibility of dense salts and harmful substances with a strong toxic effect entering the sea (in hydraulic connection with the seawater reservoir and district complexes), saving the Koshkar-Ata landfill from dusting beaches from wind erosion, lowering the surface of the water mirrors, which leads to the denudation of the shores, is determined by the factors of transformation of the waste warehouse into a radioactive swamp. Topical issues include measures and studies aimed at preventing evaporation from the surface of the water mirror of the Koshkar-Ata waste storage tank, as well as cleaning bare shores from "swamp" waste, re-fertilization of land. To effectively solve the problem of the Koshkar-Ata waste accumulator, various complex methods have been proposed for many years, such as reducing the evaporation of water from the sump, re-fertilizing the coastal territory, but due to the vastness of the Koshkar-Ata waste landfill, it is too early to say that a solution to this problem has been found. Studies have established that a decrease in the water surface of the tailing dump occurs due to the combined impact of a complex of natural factors on the reservoir. These factors include a strong wind (movement of atmospheric layers of air), water temperature, the presence of certain substances in the water (in addition to salts of mineral origin). In any case, there is evaporation of water from the surface of the tailing dump into the atmosphere, shallowing of the coastal zone, and exposure of sands, which causes the formation of fine dust that adversely affects the human body. Key words: waste storage, radon inhalation, toxic pond, heliopontoon.

The Level of Individual Biochemical Constants of the Brain of in the Krushinsky-Molodkina Inbred Rat Strain against the Background of Radon Inhalation During Epilepsy

Introduction: The elucidation of the mechanism of action of radon on antioxidant processes needs further research, however, based on the results of the experiment, it can be concluded that studies on experimental animals have shown that, while inhaling Tskhaltubo water, the phenomenon of hormesis develops.
 Methods: we placed 10 experimental animals (KM rats) in Radon contained mineral water spa`s sauna. Inhalation of radon-water was administered through the nose, for 10 minutes, once a day, in conditions of high humidity (about 90%) for 10 days.
 Results: Hormesis regulates oxidative processes in the brain due to the activation of antioxidants expressed in a decrease in existing epileptic seizures and is expressed in the activation of Na / K-ATPase and specific glutaminergic neurons of the "attack center" of the hypothalamus but also with the activation of the entire adaptive-compensatory system.
 Conclusion: Inhalation of radon contained water can be considered as a method of treatment with an anticonvulsant effect confirmed by experimental studies.

Time variation of radon in tap water in locations of a Greek area with geological background for elevated radon-in-water concentrations and correlation study between radon, gross alpha, uranium, and radium concentrations

Background: Radon (222Rn), a naturally occurring radioactive gas, dissolves in water, and it can be found in elevated concentrations in public water supplies when water originates from ground sources in areas rich in uranium. An area of great interest for measuring radon-in-water is the Migdonia basin in Northern Greece due to its geological background and because all of its villages are supplied with water from boreholes.
 Objectives: The main aim of this paper was to study the time variation of radon in tap water activity concentration in nine villages of the Migdonia basin supplied with water from boreholes and to determine factors that may affect it. Radon in water correlation between the source (borehole) and the consumption point (tap) was studied for some villages. Also, the correlation among radon, gross alpha, beta, uranium (238U), and radium (226Ra) activity concentration in water was studied.
 Design and methods: Water samples were collected and measured for their radon activity concentration from 66 villages in the Migdonia basin in order to find places with relatively high radon concentrations. The time variation of radon-in-water was studied for villages that showed relatively high radon concentrations for 3–4 years (2018–2022). All samples were measured for their 222Rn activity concentration using gamma-ray spectrometry. Water samples were also analyzed for their gross alpha, beta, and uranium isotopes activity concentration.
 Results and conclusions: Average radon in tap water activity concentrations measured in the area ranged from background concentrations to 185 Bq L-1. The corresponding annual effective doses from waterborne radon inhalation using both UNSCEAR and ICRP dose conversion factors ranged from 0.01 to 0.466 mSv y-1 and from 0.02 to 0.868 mSv y-1, respectively, while radon ingestion annual effective doses varied from 0.007 to 0.324 mSv y-1. Time variation of radon activity concentration in tap water for villages supplied from one borehole or a constant number of boreholes showed relatively low standard deviations (<24%) at a coverage factor of k = 1. Those deviations are probably caused by the time variation of boreholes’ radon concentration and water demand changes. A significant decline in radon concentration from the source (borehole) to the consumption point (tap water) was observed. Therefore, sampling should be performed at the consumption point. However, knowing the supplying borehole concentration is useful as it determines the potential for radon in drinking water. No apparent correlation was found among radon, gross alpha, beta, uranium, and radium concentrations in water. However, in some cases, remedial actions (withdrawal of boreholes) for uranium concentration also decreased radon concentration.