Radiological Emergency Preparedness Research Articles

Adaptation of FDMT to include process-based models and consider regional aspects following radionuclide deposition events

Experience from earlier nuclear accidents has clearly shown the need for maintaining and developing appropriate modelling capabilities. Dealing with complex issues such as human exposure following a nuclear accident necessitates the implementation of a set of interconnected models such as FDMT. FDMT is an integrated module within the two main European decision support systems for radiological emergency preparedness, ARGOS and JRODOS, to simulate the transfer of radionuclides along terrestrial food chains and to predict their activity concentrations in foodstuffs. In order to make the module more fit-for-purpose, FDMT has been implemented in a new modelling platform (ECOLEGO) which provides a high degree of flexibility with regard to conducting developmental work. This paper presents improvements in FDMT further through either the incorporation of new models or further elaboration of existing ones, as well as updates in default parameters. Models have also been made more fit-for-purpose through consideration of regional-specific parameters. Specific improvements include modelling developments related to dry deposition, radioactive particle weathering, radiocaesium transfer influenced by soil characteristics and, for a region-specific case, animal uptake. In addition, the paper presents new pathways and parameters (and updated values) to be considered for making FDMT more adapted for Norwegian conditions. Overall, the improvements made in the present work should significantly reduce the uncertainties associated with the outputs of the FDMT models.

Knowledge, Attitude and Awareness of Oman Emergency Physicians and Residents Regarding Radiation Emergencies.

Radiological emergency preparedness and response are increasingly acknowledged as vital components of both emergency readiness and public health. Previous studies have shown that medical providers feel unprepared to respond to radiation incidents. The existing level of knowledge, attitudes, and awareness held by emergency medicine residents and physicians in Oman, remain unexplored. This study aims to evaluate the knowledge, attitude, and awareness level of emergency residents and physicians in Oman regarding the management of radiation emergencies. An electronic survey was distributed to 44 emergency residents and 57 emergency physicians. The response rate was 62.7% (N = 69/110). Notably, 62% reported no prior engagement in radiation emergency training. The majority of participants had neither employed nor received training in operating radiation detection devices. A significant gap in knowledge emerged, with the median self-reported knowledge score of 50/100. The majority of participants (59%) expressed a need for educational programs and materials. Our findings underscore the imperative for enhanced training in radiological incident preparedness for emergency medicine residents and physicians in Oman. The study reveals a clear necessity to bridge the existing gaps in knowledge and attitudes to bolster the readiness of health-care professionals to respond effectively to radiation emergencies.

Assessment of Protective Action Decision Making during Nuclear Power Plant Biennial Exercises.

Radiological emergency preparedness for commercial nuclear power plants provides planning for implementing predetermined, prompt protective actions such as evacuation and shelter-in-place. In the event of a significant radiological release, onsite emergency response organizations will notify offsite response organizations and provide a protective action recommendation. The cognizant offsite authority will then make a protective action decision and inform the public of the need to act. Both the protective action recommendation and decision are driven by US Environmental Protection Agency protective action guides. Protective action strategies contain conservatisms and are intended to balance protection against other factors to ensure that actions result in more benefit than harm. But added conservatism can potentially shift the risks to those inherent to the protective action with no added benefit of protection. Protective action recommendations and protective action decisions made during biennial exercises were analyzed to assess how well they comport with the protective action guides. Trends in precautionary actions and the use of potassium iodide were also investigated. The analysis shows that protective action decisions typically exceed the protective action recommendation, resulting in an increase in the number of potential evacuees. However, exercise dose projection data do not appear to support such extensive initial evacuation decisions based on consideration of the protective action guides.

Medical gamma cameras in radiological emergency preparedness: determination of calibration factors and MDA for the GE Discovery NM/CT 670 Pro

A survey was performed of the available gamma camera models and whole-body counters (WBCs) in Sweden, revealing that there are about 75 gamma cameras and 15 WBCs currently in operation in Sweden. One of the most common gamma camera models (GE Discovery NM/CT 670 Pro), with the collimators removed, was calibrated for 152Eu, 137Cs, 60Co and 40K in three different measurement geometries (supine, close-up sitting and distant sitting) for six different phantom sizes (12–110 kg). Minimum detectable activities (MDAs) were calculated for the gamma camera and a typical WBC, both at the Sahlgrenska University Hospital in Gothenburg, Sweden. An energy window of 30–510 keV was used to calibrate the gamma camera. The calibration factors for this gamma camera for supine and close-up sitting geometry, including all phantom sizes, were 138–208 cps kBq−1 for 152Eu, 63–83 cps kBq−1 for 137Cs and 99–126 cps kBq−1 for 60Co; the MDAs were 50–73 Bq for 152Eu, 125–198 Bq for 137Cs and 83–105 Bq for 60Co. The International Commission on Radiological Protection dose coefficients for members of the public were used to calculate the committed effective doses (CEDs) corresponding to the MDAs, showing that CEDs down to a few μSv can be estimated with this gamma camera for the inhalation of aerosols of absorption type M. The distant sitting geometry was used to enable the estimation of higher contamination levels, and a hypothetical maximum CED was calculated. This was shown to be 256–2000 mSv, depending on the radionuclide and phantom size. However, further investigations are needed into the dead time losses for higher activity levels for the radionuclides studied. The results show that the use of gamma cameras for radiological triage and, in some cases, to estimate the internal activity of relevant radionuclides in radiological and nuclear events, is feasible.

Development and characterization of a portable multifunction radiation detector for radiological emergency preparedness

Development and characterization of a portable multifunction radiation detector for radiological emergency preparedness

Implication on Nuclear/Radiological Incident Response Focusing on Interagency Coordination in the United States

A nuclear/radiological incident is known as a low-probability and high-impact disaster, yet it is catastrophic when it actually happens. Therefore intensive preparation for an effective response is required and many institutions and stakeholders are involved in the preparedness phase. This research is to examine the inter-agency coordination model on nuclear/Radiological incident response in the United States and aims to extract policy implications. In order to do so, the Nuclear/Radiological Incident Annex to the Response and Recovery Federal Interagency Operational Plan was studied with a focus on the interagency coordination program in the United States. This study reviewed the Federal Radiological Preparedness Coordinating Committee (FRPCC) and Radiological Emergency Preparedness Program (REPP) in the United States and examined the role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) as a lead entity for federal response activities for the nuclear/radiological event. This study suggests establishing a central government program to support local governments for radiological emergency preparedness activities and coordination efforts among stakeholders.

A simulation system of radiation field and its detection for nuclear and radiological emergency preparedness and response training

Appropriate training of the related personnel is one of the most important aspects in nuclear and radiological emergency preparedness and response. The use of simulation training could provide the trainees learning experience of a lifelike, hands-on scenario without associated radiation safety restrictions. In this study, we established a radiation field simulation system that includes two separate parts. For small-area radiation field simulation, a set of simulation sources and detectors was designed based on ultra wide band distance measurement technology. For large-area field simulation, a Gaussian plume model was used to simulate the dispersion of released radioactive aerosols and calculate the consequent radiation field. Also, a Global Position System positioning and wireless transmission technique was used for simulation instruments’ data acquisition. This system could create a verisimilar but also safe and radiation-free environment and can be used in the training of nuclear emergency first responders, rescue teams or radiation protection personnel.

Operationalizing Community Assessment Results to Enhance Preparedness for a Radiological Emergency.

A radiological emergency such as the detonation of a radiological dispersal device would have catastrophic health, environmental, and economic consequences. Community assessments can provide useful information about radiological and other emergency preparedness at the household level. Tools such as logic models can be applied to link data collected in a community assessment to planned activities and targeted outcomes. This study sought to answer how public health departments can use the results of a community assessment to improve preparedness for radiological and other types of emergencies and to present a sample logic model demonstrating how questions asked in a community assessment can be used to drive intended outcomes. Surveys were fielded in 2019 to professionals with experience in radiological emergency preparedness, state and local health and emergency management, and journalism. Questions included the role of health departments in radiological emergency preparedness, the operationalization of results from a community assessment for preparedness, and information sharing in a radiological emergency. Descriptive statistics and a modified framework approach were used for open-ended questions. Nearly three-fourths of state/local officials reported that it would be at least somewhat difficult (73%; 11 of 15 state/local officials) for a local health department to operationalize the results of a community health assessment for radiological emergency preparedness. Potential barriers included competing priorities, lack of funds, and limited staff. Resources such as pretested communication materials, tailored messaging, and technical tools and training can assist health departments and emergency management agencies in using the information collected from a community assessment. To address implementation challenges in operationalizing the results of a community assessment, officials can use tools such as logic models to illustrate how the information gathered from a community health assessment will create an intended preparedness outcome and to advocate for funds for this type of assessment.

Nuclear Safety and Security in the Arctic: Crafting an Effective Regional Governance System

The Arctic is saturated with nuclear facilities bringing both benefits for regional economic and social development and risks of nuclear and radiological accidents and concerns about radioactive wastes. There is every reason to expect the Arctic will remain a nuclearized region during the foreseeable future. This makes it important to direct attention to issues of nuclear safety and security in the region. We identify several clusters of these issues in the Arctic, including the challenges of potential nuclear accidents, the handling of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste, the cleanup of radiological contaminants, and concerns about nuclear security. An analysis of international conventions and voluntary codes of conduct shows that they are applicable to Arctic nuclear safety and security, but only in general terms. This suggests a need for an Arctic-specific agreement on nuclear and radiological safety, emergency preparedness and response, and cleanup of radiological contaminants. The outbreak of military hostilities in Ukraine in February 2022 has disrupted normal procedures for addressing issues of common concern in the Arctic. But the need for co-operation regarding matters like nuclear safety and security will not go away. Assuming it is possible to devise “necessary modalities” for restarting the work of the Arctic Council following the acute phase of the Ukraine crisis, an Arctic-specific agreement on nuclear safety and security could be developed under the auspices of the Arctic Council, which already has taken an interest in nuclear safety through the activities of its Working Group on Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response. Once such an agreement is in place, it will become important to consider the infrastructure needed to ensure that its provisions are implemented effectively.

Knowledge on radiation emergency preparedness among nuclear medicine technologists

This study aimed to assess the knowledge of nuclear medicine technologists (NMTs) in radiation emergency preparedness and response operations and their willingness to participate in such operations. A survey was developed for this purpose and distributed to NMTs in Saudi Arabia. Sixty participants responded with a response rate of 63.31%. Based on the overall radiation protection knowledge related to emergency response, NMTs can perform radiation detection, population monitoring, patient decontamination, and assist with radiological dose assessments during radiation emergencies. There were no significant differences in the knowledge on the use of scintillation gamma camera (P = 0.314), well counter (P = 0.744), Geiger counter (P = 0.935), thyroid probes (P = 0.980), portable monitor (P = 0.830), or portable multichannel analyzer (P = 0.413) and years of experience. Approximately 44% of the respondents reported receiving emergency preparedness training in the last 5 years. Respondents who reported receiving training were significantly more familiar with the emergency preparedness resources (P = 0.031) and more willing to assist with radiation detection or monitoring in the event of nuclear reactor accident (P = 0.016), nuclear weapon detonation (P = 0.002), and dirty bomb detonation (P = 0.003). These findings indicate the importance of training and continuing education in radiological emergency preparedness and response, which increase the willingness to respond to radiological accidents and fill the gaps in NMTs’ knowledge and familiarity with response resources.

Developing an instrument to measure household radiological emergency preparedness using the Community Assessment for Public Health Emergency Response (CASPER) methodology: An evidence-informed approach.

Community assessments to measure emergency preparedness can inform policies, planning, and communication to the public to improve readiness and response if an emergency was to occur. Public health and emergency management officials need an effective assessment tool to measure community preparedness for a radiological emergency. The authors created a survey instrument to collect data on household radiological emergency preparedness that could be implemented using the Community Assessment for Public Health Emergency Response (CASPER) methodology, developed by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. To inform the development of the tool, the authors examined existing CASPER surveys, focusing on identifying best practices for creating a survey instrument, as well as analyzing the results of a survey of radiation preparedness experts and state/local health and emergency management officials. The developed survey tool includes 32 questions covering four domains: communication in an emergency, preparedness planning, physical/behavioral health, and demographics. The instrument captures information related to identified barriers in communicating in a radiological emergency as well as self-reported behaviors that could potentially be influenced through awareness and education. Using the proposed survey instrument and following the existing rapid assessment methodology provided by CASPER, public health and emergency management agencies can collect valuable information on the radiation preparedness needs of their communities, which can then be used to improve household readiness for an emergency.

Development of a web-based radiological emergency preparedness system for nuclear accidents

A radiological emergency preparedness system in Korea has been developed to predict the behavior of radioactive material released into the environment and estimate the dose assessment for humans in case of a nuclear accident in neighboring countries, including Korea. The system is composed of atmospheric dispersion, marine dispersion, and dose assessment models, along with a graphic user interface module. It can evaluate the dispersion patterns of radionuclides in the air and ocean, and the short-term and long-term radiological effects of a nuclear accident on humans. It has been constructed on the web to allow users to access it easily and simply through an intrinsic IP address, username, and password. The atmospheric dispersion, marine dispersion, and dose assessment models have already been validated by model-to-model comparisons and measurements from the Chernobyl and Fukushima accidents. The described system is now in operation for government and nuclear-related organizations in Korea in case of a nuclear accident.

An Attempt to Reduce the Background Free Radicals in Fingernails for Monitoring Accidental Hand Exposure of Medical Workers

While it is recognized that some medical workers could receive significantly higher radiation doses to their hands than the routinely monitored personal doses, accurate retrospective dosimetry of their hand exposure is still challenging. To solve this issue, a combination of electron spin resonance (ESR) measurement and fingernails is worth to be investigated. However, the application of fingernail ESR dosimetry requires establishing an effective protocol to eliminate the background signal (BKG) which changes due to mechanical stress and other unclear factors, so that the radiation doses would be precisely evaluated from the radiation-induced signals (RIS) only. Thus, the authors investigated possible applications of antioxidants to remove or reduce the BKG in fingernails. In the present study, the effectiveness of chemical treatment using the dithiothreitol (DTT) reducing reagent was examined in irradiated and unirradiated fingernails. Chemically and non-chemically treated fingernails were subsequently exposed to 20 Gy of 137Cs γ-rays and the time changes of the BKG and RIS were confirmed in two different storage conditions: vacuum chamber and freezer. The results show that the non-chemically treated fingernails displayed significant intra-individual variations in the peak-to-peak intensities of both BKG and RIS. RIS from chemically and non-chemically treated samples showed correlations after freezer storage; signals were more stable than the samples stored in the vacuum chamber. Moreover, while the BKG of non-chemically treated samples demonstrated higher levels than those chemically treated, the intra-individual variations were further reduced by the DTT treatment. Our results imply that the use of an antioxidant for hand washing of medical workers prior to starting their work could be effective in reducing the pre-existing free radicals in their fingernails. This also suggests a practical application of hand exposure monitoring using fingernails as a part of radiological emergency preparedness in occupations where radiation or radionuclides are used. Research for finding safer and easier-to-handle antioxidants is to be focused on in future studies.

Ionising radiation risk perception through mental models: towards radiological emergency preparedness

In case of a chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear emergency, there are recommended or required behaviours to be adopted by the public, e.g. go inside, stay inside, stay informed. The initial response can be crucial to outcomes, all the while recognising that changes may be needed as the emergency progresses. The recent coronavirus pandemic demonstrated how the course of action taken by authorities endorsing these protective behaviours early on can save thousands of lives. Factors that determine response success include public compliance with authorities’ recommendations and cooperation between experts and rescuers. In particular, the way rescuers perceive the risks of ionising radiation hazards will influence their preparedness to respond in case of a radiological or nuclear emergency. Having found no previous studies on radiological hazard and risk perception amongst rescuers in Portugal, mental models were used as a descriptive approach. The target groups were firefighters and the military formally trained to deal with radiation hazard emergencies. Their representations of radiological hazards and risks were analysed in the light of an expert model built ad hoc. The results show several overlays between experts and rescuers on the understanding of radiation hazards and potential risks. We conclude that the main gap between radiation risk perceptions by rescuers and experts involves the concepts and mechanisms of radiation contamination and its spread among individuals, in particular, if persons exposed to radioactive sources may also become a radioactive source themselves. This gap can have practical implications for an emergency response.

Prioritizing Communication About Radiation Risk Reduction in the United States: Results from a Multi-criteria Decision Analysis.

The lack of radiation knowledge among the general public continues to be a challenge for building communities prepared for radiological emergencies. This study applied a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) to the results of an expert survey to identify priority risk reduction messages and challenges to increasing community radiological emergency preparedness. Professionals with expertise in radiological emergency preparedness, state/local health and emergency management officials, and journalists/journalism academics were surveyed following a purposive sampling methodology. An MCDA was used to weight criteria of importance in a radiological emergency, and the weighted criteria were applied to topics such as sheltering-in-place, decontamination, and use of potassium iodide. Results were reviewed by respondent group and in aggregate. Sheltering-in-place and evacuation plans were identified as the most important risk reduction measures to communicate to the public. Possible communication challenges during a radiological emergency included access to accurate information; low levels of public trust; public knowledge about radiation; and communications infrastructure failures. Future assessments for community readiness for a radiological emergency should include questions about sheltering-in-place and evacuation plans to inform risk communication.

Broadening and strengthening stakeholder engagement in emergency preparedness, response and recovery

This article discusses stakeholder engagement in the field of nuclear and radiological emergency preparedness, response, and recovery (EPR & R). It argues that stakeholder engagement in this field could be broadened – in terms of stakeholders and forms of engagement, and strengthened – in terms of sustainability and impact. Four different dimensions are identified and presented along which this process of broadening and strengthening can occur: (1) the underlying rationales of engagement, (2) top-down and bottom-up engagement, (3) formal and informal engagement, and (4) radiological protection culture. Based on the analysis of these dimensions, a reflection on power and non-participation is provided, and recommendations on stakeholder engagement are formulated.

Stakeholder participation in nuclear and radiological emergency preparedness and recovery in Spain: benefits and challenges of working together

Emergency preparedness and response (EP&R) to radiological or nuclear accidents depends on many different stakeholder groups: nuclear and radiological regulators and authorities; institutions and ministries concerned by health, environment and consumption; first-line responders including the police, military, firefighters and health workers; as well as local authorities and nuclear industries. Stakeholders also include the general public, such as people living near NPPs or affected by previous nuclear or radiological accidents and incidents. Teachers and journalists, bloggers and other social media figures would play a key role in effective dissemination of knowledge and information. NGOs or civil associations/societies can also be involved in radiation monitoring and protection. The present study describes the role of different research institutions (such as CIEMAT, UPM and ISGlobal) and of the Spanish Society of Radiological Protection (SEPR) in bringing together the above-listed stakeholders in Spain to discuss EP&R and identify benefits and challenges of working together. Stakeholder opinions on EP&R, collected mainly in the framework of several European-funded projects, are provided. Remaining barriers and examples of good practices in radiation protection are discussed, as well as recommendations for improving nuclear and radiological emergency preparedness in Spain. The conclusions may be useful for other countries.

Nuclear and radiological emergency management and preparedness

Recent EURATOM research efforts on Emergency Preparedness and Response (EP&R) have been focussed on programs addressing some main knowledge gaps clearly identified in the outcomes of investigations carried out in Europe in response to the Fukushima accident. The PREPARE and FASTNET projects tried to solve similar problems adopting very complementary and synergic approaches. The main achievements of both projects are detailed in this paper. In particular, the problem of the fast estimation of time-dependent, long-lasting Source Terms is discussed. This problem is not only a technical one, but is also related to the experience and skill of the code users. As the EP&R is spanning a wide range in Europe, certainly far beyond the borders of individual states, it is mandatory creating a common and shared understanding of emergencies. Both PREPARE and FASTNET recognized the fundamental role of exercises to increase the experience of emergency responders in Europe. A general recommendation can then be formulated, in that more efforts should be dedicated in the future to the realization of such important exercises.

Design of IoT-based Radiation Monitor Area for Nuclear and Radiological Emergency Preparedness System in Yogyakarta Nuclear Area

Yogyakarta Nuclear Area (YNA) is one of BATAN’s nuclear facility that has many nuclear facilities such as nuclear reactor, accelerator, irradiator, and waste management system. Due to nuclear accident is potentially occur, YNA has nuclear emergency response program and there is a preparedness system to support this program. Radiation monitoring system is one of utilization to acquire and record nuclear radiation exposure in the facility and its environment. An Internet of Thing based radiation area monitor was developed to improve the system not only to acquire the radiation exposure, but also to distribute the acquired data to the cloud server through the internet network. The distributed radiation data can be utilized to analyze nuclear emergence potential in the nuclear emergency response and preparedness system. The area monitor system was designed as sensor network that consists of Geiger Muller detector and high voltage power supply, signal conditioning system, and Arduino as counter and data processor. Data is acquired by a detector and it is transmitted to the server through wireless network using the node MCU communication module. The receiver station system was developed to acquire data from database server to display the radiation exposure in the environment and to identify radiological emergency status. Based on the chi square test stability method, the developed device has good stability which the probability of x2 was obtained 0.75. The validation testing also was done using Sr-90 and x-ray spectrometer as radiation source, and the developed device has been compared using a standard survey-meter. The mean square error of this validation testing was 0.37 and 0.24 respectively for Sr-90 at two difference source distance, while for x-ray spectrometer source the mean square error value was 2.48. For further development, the system will be combined with a smart meteorological system to build the integrated data acquisition system for Nuclear and Radiological Emergency Preparedness System in Yogyakarta Nuclear Area.

Assessment of temporal variations of natural radionuclides Beryllium-7 and Lead-212 in surface air in Tanay, Philippines

Detection of radionuclides in surface air allows researchers to gain further insight on the behavior of radionuclides that may affect human radiation exposure especially in the event of a nuclear emergency. In this study, activity concentrations of naturally-occurring radionuclides Beryllium-7 (7Be) and Lead-212 (212Pb) in surface air and meteorological data collected in Tanay, Philippines from January 2012 to December 2017 were evaluated to determine the impact of atmospheric conditions and processes to airborne radioactivity. Surface air concentrations of 7Be and 212Pb were found to range from 0.00779 ± 0.00188 to 11.2 ± 0.116 mBq/m3 and from 1.371 ± 0.036 to 106.6 ± 1.075 mBq/m3, respectively. 7Be and 212Pb show distinct annual trends, suggesting that atmospheric conditions affect both radionuclides differently and independently. 7Be shows two peak concentrations annually, with the first peak occurring between January to April and the second lower peak occurring between October and November. 212Pb, on the other hand, shows annual peak concentrations occurring between April and June. Ambient temperature showed strong positive correlation with 212Pb concentration in surface air and a weak negative correlation with 7Be; relative humidity and precipitation showed varying degrees of negative correlation with radionuclide concentrations in surface air. Source locations for the unusually high 212Pb activity concentrations detected on 11–13 May 2013 and 19–31 May 2015 determined using WEB-GRAPE and HYSPLIT atmospheric transport models are presented as a case study. The data and findings of this study shall serve as basis for further studies on local and regional atmospheric transport and radiological impact assessment for the implementation of an effective nuclear and radiological emergency preparedness and response system in the country.