Radioimmune Precipitation Assay Research Articles

To measure musk ABS in ACHR AB negative sera: RIPA is more specific, and SPR is more sensitive

Muscle-specific kinase (MuSK) myasthenia gravis (MG) is often a more severe form of MG that presents with a rapid onset and prominent bulbar symptoms. Today, the diagnosis of MuSK MG is heavily reliant on the antibody (Ab) status of the patient. In most laboratories worldwide, the Abs are measured by radio immune precipitation assay (RIPA). We have developed another testing platform using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technology. Our aim was to measure the clinical sensitivity and specificity for two different MuSK Ab assays.

Loss of the disease-associated glycosyltransferase Galnt3 alters Muc10 glycosylation and the composition of the oral microbiome

Loss of the disease-associated glycosyltransferase Galnt3 alters Muc10 glycosylation and the composition of the oral microbiome

Beclin1 decreases the RIPA-insoluble fraction of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-linked SOD1 mutant via autophagy

Many neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), are characterised by the intracellular appearance of protein aggregates or insoluble materials. Accelerated removal of related toxic proteins might be beneficial for these diseases. Here we describe an inducible role of Beclin1, an essential regulator for autophagy, in degradation of the familial ALS-linked Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) mutant. We confirmed that the SOD1 mutant exhibited an increased RIPA (radioimmune precipitation assay buffer, containing NP40 and sodium deoxycholate)-insolubility compared with SOD1 wild-type (WT). Also, the insoluble fraction formed by SOD1 mutant was greatly reduced by coexpressing Beclin1 in both neuronal and non-neuronal cell lines. Pharmacological inhibition of autophagy diminished the effect of Beclin1 and resulted in an accumulation of insoluble SOD1. Our results support the role of Beclin1 in the involvement of autophagic degradation of SOD1 mutant. We propose Beclin1 enhances autophagy and presents a possible therapeutic strategy for familial ALS.

F-box Only Protein 2 (Fbxo2) Regulates Amyloid Precursor Protein Levels and Processing

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is an integral membrane glycoprotein whose cleavage products, particularly amyloid-β, accumulate in Alzheimer disease (AD). APP is present at synapses and is thought to play a role in both the formation and plasticity of these critical neuronal structures. Despite the central role suggested for APP in AD pathogenesis, the mechanisms regulating APP in neurons and its processing into cleavage products remain incompletely understood. F-box only protein 2 (Fbxo2), a neuron-enriched ubiquitin ligase substrate adaptor that preferentially binds high-mannose glycans on glycoproteins, was previously implicated in APP processing by facilitating the degradation of the APP-cleaving β-secretase, β-site APP-cleaving enzyme. Here, we sought to determine whether Fbxo2 plays a similar role for other glycoproteins in the amyloid processing pathway. We present in vitro and in vivo evidence that APP is itself a substrate for Fbxo2. APP levels were decreased in the presence of Fbxo2 in non-neuronal cells, and increased in both cultured hippocampal neurons and brain tissue from Fbxo2 knock-out mice. The processing of APP into its cleavage products was also increased in hippocampi and cultured hippocampal neurons lacking Fbxo2. In hippocampal slices, this increase in cleavage products was accompanied by a significant reduction in APP at the cell surface. Taken together, these results suggest that Fbxo2 regulates APP levels and processing in the brain and may play a role in modulating AD pathogenesis.

The Activating Transcription Factor 3 Protein Suppresses the Oncogenic Function of Mutant p53 Proteins

Mutant p53 proteins (mutp53) often acquire oncogenic activities, conferring drug resistance and/or promoting cancer cell migration and invasion. Although it has been well established that such a gain of function is mainly achieved through interaction with transcriptional regulators, thereby modulating cancer-associated gene expression, how the mutp53 function is regulated remains elusive. Here we report that activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3) bound common mutp53 (e.g. R175H and R273H) and, subsequently, suppressed their oncogenic activities. ATF3 repressed mutp53-induced NFKB2 expression and sensitized R175H-expressing cancer cells to cisplatin and etoposide treatments. Moreover, ATF3 appeared to suppress R175H- and R273H-mediated cancer cell migration and invasion as a consequence of preventing the transcription factor p63 from inactivation by mutp53. Accordingly, ATF3 promoted the expression of the metastasis suppressor SHARP1 in mutp53-expressing cells. An ATF3 mutant devoid of the mutp53-binding domain failed to disrupt the mutp53-p63 binding and, thus, lost the activity to suppress mutp53-mediated migration, suggesting that ATF3 binds to mutp53 to suppress its oncogenic function. In line with these results, we found that down-regulation of ATF3 expression correlated with lymph node metastasis in TP53-mutated human lung cancer. We conclude that ATF3 can suppress mutp53 oncogenic function, thereby contributing to tumor suppression in TP53-mutated cancer.

Transcriptional Repression of the Transforming Growth Factor β (TGF-β) Pseudoreceptor BMP and Activin Membrane-bound Inhibitor (BAMBI) by Nuclear Factor κB (NF-κB) p50 Enhances TGF-β Signaling in Hepatic Stellate Cells

TLR4 signaling induces down-regulation of the bone morphogenic protein (BMP) and activin membrane-bound inhibitor (BAMBI), which enhances TGF-β signaling during hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation. We investigated the mechanism by which TLR4 signaling down-regulates BAMBI expression in HSCs and found that TLR4- and TNF-α-mediated BAMBI down-regulation is dependent on regulation of BAMBI promoter activity through the interaction with NF-κBp50 and HDAC1 in HSCs. Bambi was predominantly expressed in HSCs, at high levels in quiescent HSCs but at low levels in in vivo-activated and LPS-stimulated HSCs. In human HSCs, BAMBI expression was down-regulated in response to LPS and TNF-α. A BAMBI reporter assay demonstrated that the regulatory element to repress BAMBI transcription is located between 3384 and 1560 bp upstream from the transcription start site. LPS stimulation down-regulated BAMBI expression in cells with NF-κBp65 knockdown. However, it failed to down-regulate BAMBI in cells with inactivation of NF-κB or NF-κBp50 silencing, indicating that NF-κBp50 is a factor for BAMBI down-regulation. ChIP analysis revealed that LPS and TNF-α induced binding of the NF-κBp50/p50 homodimer to the BAMBI promoter region. We also found that HDAC1 is bound to this region as part of the NF-κBp50-HDAC1 complex, repressing transcriptional activity of the BAMBI promoter. Finally, we confirmed that LPS does not repress BAMBI reporter activity using a BAMBI reporter construct with a mutation at 3166 bp upstream of the coding region. In summary, our study demonstrates that LPS- and TNF-α-induced NF-κBp50-HDAC1 interaction represses BAMBI transcriptional activity, which contributes to TLR4-mediated enhancement of TGF-β signaling in HSCs during liver fibrosis.

Functional Swapping between Transmembrane Proteins TMEM16A and TMEM16F

The transmembrane proteins TMEM16A and -16F each carry eight transmembrane regions with cytoplasmic N and C termini. TMEM16A carries out Ca(2+)-dependent Cl(-) ion transport, and TMEM16F is responsible for Ca(2+)-dependent phospholipid scrambling. Here we established assay systems for the Ca(2+)-dependent Cl(-) channel activity using 293T cells and for the phospholipid scramblase activity using TMEM16F(-/-) immortalized fetal thymocytes. Chemical cross-linking analysis showed that TMEM16A and -16F form homodimers in both 293T cells and immortalized fetal thymocytes. Successive deletion from the N or C terminus of both proteins and the swapping of regions between TMEM16A and -16F indicated that their cytoplasmic N-terminal (147 amino acids for TMEM16A and 95 for 16F) and C-terminal (88 amino acids for TMEM16A and 68 for 16F) regions were essential for their localization at plasma membranes and protein stability, respectively, and could be exchanged. Analyses of TMEM16A and -16F mutants with point mutations in the pore region (located between the fifth and sixth transmembrane regions) indicated that the pore region is essential for both the Cl(-) channel activity of TMEM16A and the phospholipid scramblase activity of TMEM16F. Some chemicals such as epigallocatechin-3-gallate and digallic acid inhibited the Cl(-) channel activity of TMEM16A and the scramblase activity of TMEM16F with an opposite preference. These results indicate that TMEM16A and -16F use a similar mechanism for sorting to plasma membrane and protein stabilization, but their functional domains significantly differ.

Oligomerization of the Nrdp1 E3 Ubiquitin Ligase Is Necessary for Efficient Autoubiquitination but Not ErbB3 Ubiquitination

Overexpression of the ErbB3 receptor tyrosine kinase protein in breast and other cancers contributes to tumor malignancy and therapeutic resistance. The RBCC/TRIM family RING finger E3 ubiquitin ligase Nrdp1 mediates the ubiquitination of ErbB3 in normal mammary epithelial cells to facilitate receptor degradation and suppress steady-state receptor levels. Post-transcriptional loss of Nrdp1 in patient breast tumors allows ErbB3 overexpression and receptor contribution to tumor progression, and elevated lability through autoubiquitination contributes to the observed loss of Nrdp1 in tumors relative to normal tissue. To begin to understand the mechanisms underlying Nrdp1 protein self-regulation through lability, we investigated the structural determinants required for efficient autoubiquitination and ErbB3 ubiquitination. Using mutagenesis, chemical cross-linking, size exclusion chromatography, and native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, we demonstrate that Nrdp1 self-associates into a stable oligomeric complex in cells. Deletion of its coiled-coil domain abrogates oligomerization but does not affect Nrdp1-mediated ErbB3 ubiquitination or degradation. On the other hand, the presence of the coiled-coil domain is necessary for efficient Nrdp1 autoubiquitination via a trans mechanism, indicating that Nrdp1 ubiquitination of its various targets is functionally separable. Finally, a GFP fusion of the coiled-coil domain stabilizes Nrdp1 and potentiates ErbB3 ubiquitination and degradation. These observations point to a model whereby the coiled-coil domain plays a key role in regulating Nrdp1 lability by promoting its assembly into an oligomeric complex, and raise the possibility that inhibition of ligase oligomerization via its coiled-coil domain could be of therapeutic benefit to breast cancer patients by restoring Nrdp1 protein.

Platelet-derived Growth Factor-C (PDGF-C) Induces Anti-apoptotic Effects on Macrophages through Akt and Bad Phosphorylation

PDGF-C, which is abundant in the malignant breast tumor microenvironment, plays an important role in cell growth and survival. Because tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) contribute to cancer malignancy, macrophage survival mechanisms are an attractive area of research into controlling tumor progression. In this study, we investigated PDGF-C-mediated signaling pathways involved in anti-apoptotic effects in macrophages. We found that the human malignant breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 produced high quantities of PDGF-C, whereas benign MCF-7 cells did not. Recombinant PDGF-C induced PDGF receptor α chain phosphorylation, followed by Akt and Bad phosphorylation in THP-1-derived macrophages. MDA-MB-231 culture supernatants also activated macrophage PDGF-Rα. PDGF-C prevented staurosporine-induced macrophage apoptosis by inhibiting the activation of caspase-3, -7, -8, and -9 and cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. Finally, TAMs isolated from the PDGF-C knockdown murine breast cancer cell line 4T1 and PDGF-C knockdown MDA-MB-231-derived tumor mass showed higher rates of apoptosis than the respective WT controls. Collectively, our results suggest that tumor cell-derived PDGF-C enhances TAM survival, promoting tumor malignancy.

CAMP-dependent Protein Kinase and c-Jun N-terminal Kinase Mediate Stathmin Phosphorylation for the Maintenance of Interphase Microtubules during Osmotic Stress

Dynamic microtubule changes after a cell stress challenge are required for cell survival and adaptation. Stathmin (STMN), a cytoplasmic microtubule-destabilizing phosphoprotein, regulates interphase microtubules during cell stress, but the signaling mechanisms involved are poorly defined. In this study ectopic expression of single alanine-substituted phospho-resistant mutants demonstrated that STMN Ser-38 and Ser-63 phosphorylation were specifically required to maintain interphase microtubules during hyperosmotic stress. STMN was phosphorylated on Ser-38 and Ser-63 in response to hyperosmolarity, heat shock, and arsenite treatment but rapidly dephosphorylated after oxidative stress treatment. Two-dimensional PAGE and Phos-tag gel analysis of stress-stimulated STMN phospho-isoforms revealed rapid STMN Ser-38 phosphorylation followed by subsequent Ser-25 and Ser-63 phosphorylation. Previously, we delineated stress-stimulated JNK targeting of STMN. Here, we identified cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) signaling as responsible for stress-induced STMN Ser-63 phosphorylation. Increased cAMP levels induced by cholera toxin triggered potent STMN Ser-63 phosphorylation. Osmotic stress stimulated an increase in PKA activity and elevated STMN Ser-63 and CREB (cAMP-response element-binding protein) Ser-133 phosphorylation that was substantially attenuated by pretreatment with H-89, a PKA inhibitor. Interestingly, PKA activity and subsequent phosphorylation of STMN were augmented in the absence of JNK activation, indicating JNK and PKA pathway cross-talk during stress regulation of STMN. Taken together our study indicates that JNK- and PKA-mediated STMN Ser-38 and Ser-63 phosphorylation are required to preserve interphase microtubules in response to hyperosmotic stress.

Apolipoprotein A-IV Reduces Hepatic Gluconeogenesis through Nuclear Receptor NR1D1

We showed recently that apoA-IV improves glucose homeostasis by enhancing pancreatic insulin secretion in the presence of elevated levels of glucose. Therefore, examined whether apolipoprotein A-IV (apoA-IV) also regulates glucose metabolism through the suppression of hepatic gluconeogenesis. The ability of apoA-IV to lower gluconeogenic gene expression and glucose production was measured in apoA-IV(-/-) and wild-type mice and primary mouse hepatocytes. The transcriptional regulation of Glc-6-Pase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) by apoA-IV was determined by luciferase activity assay. Using bacterial two-hybrid library screening, NR1D1 was identified as a putative apoA-IV-binding protein. The colocalization and interaction between apoA-IV and NR1D1 were confirmed by immunofluorescence, in situ proximity ligation assay, and coimmunoprecipitation. Enhanced recruitment of NR1D1 and activity by apoA-IV to Glc-6-Pase promoter was verified with ChIP and a luciferase assay. Down-regulation of apoA-IV on gluconeogenic genes is mediated through NR1D1, as illustrated in cells with NR1D1 knockdown by siRNA. We found that apoA-IV suppresses the expression of PEPCK and Glc-6-Pase in hepatocytes; decreases hepatic glucose production; binds and activates nuclear receptor NR1D1 and stimulates NR1D1 expression; in cells lacking NR1D1, fails to inhibit PEPCK and Glc-6-Pase gene expression; and stimulates higher hepatic glucose production and higher gluconeogenic gene expression in apoA-IV(-/-) mice. We conclude that apoA-IV inhibits hepatic gluconeogenesis by decreasing Glc-6-Pase and PEPCK gene expression through NR1D1. This novel regulatory pathway connects an influx of energy as fat from the gut (and subsequent apoA-IV secretion) with inhibition of hepatic glucose production.

Lithium Down-regulates Histone Deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) and Induces Degradation of Mutant Huntingtin

Lithium is an effective mood stabilizer that has been clinically used to treat bipolar disorder for several decades. Recent studies have suggested that lithium possesses robust neuroprotective and anti-tumor properties. Thus far, a large number of lithium targets have been discovered. Here, we report for the first time that HDAC1 is a target of lithium. Lithium significantly down-regulated HDAC1 at the translational level by targeting HDAC1 mRNA. We also showed that depletion of HDAC1 is essential for the neuroprotective effects of lithium and for the lithium-mediated degradation of mutant huntingtin through the autophagic pathway. Our studies explain the multiple functions of lithium and reveal a novel mechanism for the function of lithium in neurodegeneration.

Redox Control of the Senescence Regulator Interleukin-1α and the Secretory Phenotype

Senescent cells accumulate in aged tissue and are causally linked to age-associated tissue degeneration. These non-dividing, metabolically active cells are highly secretory and alter tissue homeostasis, creating an environment conducive to metastatic disease progression. IL-1α is a key senescence-associated (SA) proinflammatory cytokine that acts as a critical upstream regulator of the SA secretory phenotype (SASP). We established that SA shifts in steady-state H2O2 and intracellular Ca(2+) levels caused an increase in IL-1α expression and processing. The increase in intracellular Ca(2+) promoted calpain activation and increased the proteolytic cleavage of IL-1α. Antioxidants and low oxygen tension prevented SA IL-1α expression and restricted expression of SASP components IL-6 and IL-8. Ca(2+) chelation or calpain inhibition prevented SA processing of IL-1α and its ability to induce downstream cytokine expression. Conditioned medium from senescent cells treated with antioxidants or Ca(2+) chelators or cultured in low oxygen markedly reduced the invasive capacity of proximal metastatic cancer cells. In this paracrine fashion, senescent cells promoted invasion by inducing an epithelial-mesenchymal transition, actin reorganization, and cellular polarization of neighboring cancer cells. Collectively, these findings demonstrate how SA alterations in the redox state and Ca(2+) homeostasis modulate the inflammatory phenotype through the regulation of the SASP initiator IL-1α, creating a microenvironment permissive to tumor invasion.

Myocilin Mediates Myelination in the Peripheral Nervous System through ErbB2/3 Signaling

The glaucoma-associated gene, myocilin, is expressed in ocular and non-ocular tissues including the peripheral nervous system, but its functions in these tissues remain poorly understood. We demonstrate that in sciatic nerve, myocilin is expressed in Schwann cells with high concentrations at the nodes of Ranvier. There, myocilin interacts with gliomedin, neurofascin, and NrCAM, which are essential for node formation and function. Treatment of isolated dorsal root ganglion cultures with myocilin stimulates clustering of the nodal proteins neurofascin and sodium channel Nav1.2. Sciatic nerves of myocilin null mice express reduced levels of several myelin-associated and basal membrane proteins compared with those of wild-type littermates. They also demonstrate reduced myelin sheath thickness and partial disorganization of the nodes. Myocilin signaling through ErbB2/3 receptors may contribute to these observed effects. Myocilin binds to ErbB2/ErbB3, activates these receptors, and affects the downstream PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. These data implicate a role for myocilin in the development and/or maintenance of myelination and nodes of Ranvier in sciatic nerve.

Non-receptor-tyrosine Kinases Integrate Fast Glucocorticoid Signaling in Hippocampal Neurons

Despite numerous descriptions of rapid effects of corticosterone on neuronal function, the intracellular mechanisms responsible for these changes remain elusive. The present comprehensive analysis reveals that signaling from a membrane-located G protein-coupled receptor activates PKC, Akt/PKB, and PKA, which subsequently trigger the phosphorylation of the tyrosine kinases Pyk2, Src, and Abl. These changes induce rapid cytoskeletal rearrangements (increased PSD-95 co-clustering) within the post-synaptic density; these events are accompanied by increased surface NMDA receptor expression, reflecting corticosterone-induced inhibition of NMDA receptor endocytosis. Notably, none of these signaling mechanisms require de novo protein synthesis. The observed up-regulation of ERK1/2 (downstream of NMDA receptor signaling) together with the fact that c-Abl integrates cytoplasmic and nuclear functions introduces a potential mechanism through which rapid signaling initiated at the plasma membrane may eventually determine the long term integrated response to corticosterone by impacting on the transcriptional machinery that is regulated by classical, nuclear mineralocorticoid, and glucocorticoid receptors.

A Brucella Virulence Factor Targets Macrophages to Trigger B-cell Proliferation

Brucella spp. and Trypanosoma cruzi are two intracellular pathogens that have no evolutionary common origins but share a similar lifestyle as they establish chronic infections for which they have to circumvent the host immune response. Both pathogens have a virulence factor (prpA in Brucella and tcPrac in T. cruzi) that induces B-cell proliferation and promotes the establishment of the chronic phase of the infectious process. We show here that, even though PrpA promotes B-cell proliferation, it targets macrophages in vitro and is translocated to the cytoplasm during the intracellular replication phase. We observed that PrpA-treated macrophages induce the secretion of a soluble factor responsible for B-cell proliferation and identified nonmuscular myosin IIA (NMM-IIA) as a receptor required for binding and function of this virulence factor. Finally, we show that the Trypanosoma cruzi homologue of PrpA also targets macrophages to induce B-cell proliferation through the same receptor, indicating that this virulence strategy is conserved between a bacterial and a protozoan pathogen.

Low Density Lipoprotein Receptor-related Protein 1 (LRP1) Modulates N-Methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) Receptor-dependent Intracellular Signaling and NMDA-induced Regulation of Postsynaptic Protein Complexes

The lipoprotein receptor LRP1 is essential in neurons of the central nervous system, as was revealed by the analysis of conditional Lrp1-deficient mouse models. The molecular basis of its neuronal functions, however, is still incompletely understood. Here we show by immunocytochemistry, electron microscopy, and postsynaptic density preparation that LRP1 is located postsynaptically. Basal and NMDA-induced phosphorylation of the transcription factor cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB) as well as NMDA target gene transcription are reduced in LRP1-deficient neurons. In control neurons, NMDA promotes γ-secretase-dependent release of the LRP1 intracellular domain (LRP1-ICD). However, pull-down and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays showed no direct interaction between the LRP1-ICD and either CREB or target gene promoters. On the other hand, NMDA-induced degradation of the postsynaptic scaffold protein PSD-95 was impaired in the absence of LRP1, whereas its ubiquitination was increased, indicating that LRP1 influences the composition of postsynaptic protein complexes. Accordingly, NMDA-induced internalization of the AMPA receptor subunit GluA1 was impaired in LRP1-deficient neurons. These results show a role of LRP1 in the regulation and turnover of synaptic proteins, which may contribute to the reduced dendritic branching and to the neurological phenotype observed in the absence of LRP1.

The N and C Termini of ZO-1 Are Surrounded by Distinct Proteins and Functional Protein Networks

Biotin ligase tagging with ZO-1 was applied to identify a more complete tight junction proteome. Identical but also different proteins and functional networks were identified near the N and C ends of ZO-1. The ends of ZO-1 are embedded in different functional subcompartments of the tight junction. Biotin tagging with ZO-1 expands the tight junction proteome and defines subcompartments of the junction. The proteins and functional protein networks of the tight junction remain incompletely defined. Among the currently known proteins are barrier-forming proteins like occludin and the claudin family; scaffolding proteins like ZO-1; and some cytoskeletal, signaling, and cell polarity proteins. To define a more complete list of proteins and infer their functional implications, we identified the proteins that are within molecular dimensions of ZO-1 by fusing biotin ligase to either its N or C terminus, expressing these fusion proteins in Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cells, and purifying and identifying the resulting biotinylated proteins by mass spectrometry. Of a predicted proteome of ∼9000, we identified more than 400 proteins tagged by biotin ligase fused to ZO-1, with both identical and distinct proteins near the N- and C-terminal ends. Those proximal to the N terminus were enriched in transmembrane tight junction proteins, and those proximal to the C terminus were enriched in cytoskeletal proteins. We also identified many unexpected but easily rationalized proteins and verified partial colocalization of three of these proteins with ZO-1 as examples. In addition, functional networks of interacting proteins were tagged, such as the basolateral but not apical polarity network. These results provide a rich inventory of proteins and potential novel insights into functions and protein networks that should catalyze further understanding of tight junction biology. Unexpectedly, the technique demonstrates high spatial resolution, which could be generally applied to defining other subcellular protein compartmentalization.

Extracellular Acidosis Is a Novel Danger Signal Alerting Innate Immunity via the NLRP3 Inflammasome

Local acidosis has been demonstrated in ischemic tissues and at inflammatory sites. Acidic extracellular pH triggers NLRP3 inflammasome activation and interleukin-1β secretion in human macrophages. Acidic pH represents a novel danger signal alerting the innate immunity. Local acidosis may promote inflammation at ischemic and inflammatory sites. Local extracellular acidification has been demonstrated at sites of ischemia and inflammation. IL-1β is one of the key proinflammatory cytokines, and thus, its synthesis and secretion are tightly regulated. The NLRP3 (nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat containing family, pyrin domain containing 3) inflammasome complex, assembled in response to microbial components or endogenous danger signals, triggers caspase-1-mediated maturation and secretion of IL-1β. In this study, we explored whether acidic environment is sensed by immune cells as an inflammasome-activating danger signal. Human macrophages were exposed to custom cell culture media at pH 7.5-6.0. Acidic medium triggered pH-dependent secretion of IL-1β and activation of caspase-1 via a mechanism involving potassium efflux from the cells. Acidic extracellular pH caused rapid intracellular acidification, and the IL-1β-inducing effect of acidic medium could be mimicked by acidifying the cytosol with bafilomycin A1, a proton pump inhibitor. Knocking down the mRNA expression of NLRP3 receptor abolished IL-1β secretion at acidic pH. Remarkably, alkaline extracellular pH strongly inhibited the IL-1β response to several known NLRP3 activators, demonstrating bipartite regulatory potential of pH on the activity of this inflammasome. The data suggest that acidic environment represents a novel endogenous danger signal alerting the innate immunity. Low pH may thus contribute to inflammation in acidosis-associated pathologies such as atherosclerosis and post-ischemic inflammatory responses.

Regulation of Primary Response Genes in B Cells

Deregulated gene expression in B cells often results in various lymphoid malignancies and immune deficiencies. Therefore, understanding signal-induced gene regulatory pathways involved during B cell activation is important to tackle pathologies associated with altered B cell function. Primary response genes (PRGs) are rapidly induced upon signaling in B cells and other cell types and often encode oncogenic transcription factors, which are associated with various malignancies. However, an important issue that remains unclear is whether the fundamental mechanism of activation of these genes is essentially the same under such diverse conditions. c-fos is a PRG that is induced rapidly upon activation of B cells in response to a wide variety of stimuli. Using the c-fos gene as a candidate PRG, we addressed here how it is regulated in response to tumor-promoting and antigen-mimicking signals. Our results show that although the mRNA was induced and extinguished within minutes in response to both signals, surprisingly, apparently full-length unspliced pre-mRNA persisted for several hours in both cases. However, although the mitogenic signal resulted in a more sustained mRNA response that persisted for 4 h, antigenic signaling resulted in a more robust but very transient response that lasted for <1 h. Moreover, the pre-mRNA profile exhibited significant differences between the two signals. Additionally, the splicing regulation was also observed with egr-2, but not with c-myc. Together, these results suggest a previously underappreciated regulatory step in PRG expression in B cells.