Radical-radical Combination Research Articles

Mechanism of the Visible-Light-Promoted C(sp3)-H Oxidation via Uranyl Photocatalysis.

Uranyl cation, as an emerging photocatalyst, has been successfully applied to synthetic chemistry in recent years and displayed remarkable catalytic ability under visible light. However, the molecular-level reaction mechanisms of uranyl photocatalysis are unclear. Here, we explore the mechanism of the stepwise benzylic C-H oxygenation of typical alkyl-substituted aromatics (i.e., toluene, ethylbenzene, and cumene) via uranyl photocatalysis using theoretical and experimental methods. Theoretical calculation results show that the most favorable reaction path for uranyl photocatalytic oxidation is as follows: first, hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) from the benzyl position to form a carbon radical ([R•]), then oxygen addition ([R•] + O2 → [ROO•]), then radical-radical combination ([ROO•] + [R•] → [ROOR] → 2[RO•]), and eventually [RO•] reduction to produce alcohols, of which 2° alcohol would further be oxidized to ketones and 1° would be stepwise-oxygenated to acids. The results of the designed verification experiments and the capture of reactive intermediates were consistent with those of theoretical calculations and the previously reported research that the active benzylic C-H would be stepwise-oxygenated in the presence of uranyl. This work deepens our understanding of the HAT mechanism of uranyl photocatalysis and provides important theoretical support for the relevant application of uranyl photocatalysts in organic transformation.

Enhanced thermal and photo-stability of a para-substituted dicumyl ketone intercalated in a layered double hydroxide.

A ketodiacid, 4,4′-dicarboxylate-dicumyl ketone (3), has been intercalated into a Zn, Al layered double hydroxide (LDH) by a coprecipitation synthesis strategy. The structure and chemical composition of the resultant hybrid material (LDH-KDA3) were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), FT-IR, FT-Raman and solid-state 13C{1H} NMR spectroscopies, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and elemental analysis (CHN). PXRD showed that the dicarboxylate guest molecules assembled into a monolayer to give a basal spacing of 18.0 Å. TGA revealed that the organic guest starts to decompose at a significantly higher temperature (ca. 330°C) than that determined for the free ketodiacid (ca. 230°C). Photochemical experiments were performed to probe the photoreactivity of the ketoacid in the crystalline state, in solution, and as a guest embedded within the photochemically-inert LDH host. Irradiation of the bulk crystalline ketoacid results in photodecarbonylation and the exclusive formation of the radical-radical combination product. Solution studies employing the standard myoglobin (Mb) assay for quantification of released CO showed that the ketoacid behaved as a photoactivatable CO-releasing molecule for transfer of CO to heme proteins, although the photoreactivity was low. No photoinduced release of CO was found for the LDH system, indicating that molecular confinement enhanced the photo-stability of the hexasubstituted ketone. To better understand the behavior of 3 under irradiation, a more comprehensive study, involving excitation of this compound in DMSO-d6 followed by 1H NMR, UV-Vis and fluorescence spectroscopy, was undertaken and further rationalized with the help of time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) electronic quantum calculations. The photophysical study showed the formation of a less emissive compound (or compounds). New signals in the 1H NMR spectra were attributed to photoproducts obtained via Norrish type I α-cleavage decarbonylation and Norrish type II (followed by CH3 migration) pathways. TDDFT calculations predicted that the formation of a keto-enol system (via a CH3 migration step in the type II pathway) was highly favorable and consistent with the observed spectral data.

Awakening a Molecular Mummy: The Inter-and Intramolecular Photochemistry of Pyromellitic Diimides with Alkyl Carboxylates.

Pyromellitic acid diimides are not as chemically unreactive as conjecturable (and presupposed) from their numerous applications as electron acceptor units or electron carriers in molecular donor-acceptor dyads or triads. Similar to the corresponding phthalimides, electronically excited pyromellitic diimides oxidize alkyl carboxylates in aqueous solution via intermolecular electron transfer (PET) processes, which eventually results in radical-radical combination products, e.g., the benzylation product 6 from N,N'-dimethyl pyromellitic diimide 5. The analogous product 7 was formed with pivalic acid as tert-butyl radical source. One additional product 8 was isolated from alkylation/dearomatization and multiple radical additions, respectively, after prolonged irradiation. In intramolecular versions, from N-carboxyalkylated pyromellitic diimides 9a-e (C1 to C5-spaced), degradation processes were detected, e.g., the cyclization products 10 from the GABA substrate 9c. In sharp contrast to phthalimide photochemistry, the green pyromellitic diimide radical anion was detected here by UV-vis absorption (λabs = 720 nm), EPR (from 9d), and NMR spectroscopy for several intramolecular electron transfer examples. Only the yellow 1,4-quinodial structure is formed from intermolecular PET, which was deduced from the absorption spectra (λabs = 440 nm) and the subsequent chemistry. The pyromellitimide radical anion lives for hours at room temperature in the dark, but is further degraded under photochemical reaction conditions.

Solvent Cage Effects: A Comparison of Geminate and Nongeminate Radical Cage Pair Combination Efficiencies.

This study measured and compared the combination efficiencies (FcP) of geminate radical cage pairs to nongeminate (collisional) radical cage pairs (Fc'). For the [Cp'(CO)3Mo·, ·Mo(CO)3Cp'] radical cage pair, Fc' was found to be smaller than FcP in solutions having the same viscosity. It is proposed that the difference in FcP and Fc' arises because the radicals in the collisional cage pair are less likely to have the correct orbital orientation for radical-radical combination to occur, whereas photochemically generated geminate cage pairs are more likely to have the correct orbital orientation. As predicted, FcP and Fc' both increase when the microviscosity of a solution increases.

The effect of ionizing radiation on the mechanical properties of NBR elastomers reinforced by lignin

This work aimed to identify the effects of ionizing radiation on the mechanical stability of acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR) elastomers reinforced and stabilized by lignin. To achieve this goal, NBR and NBR-Lignin elastomers were irradiated with gamma rays up to 80 kGy, in air atmosphere and at room temperature. The dose rate was 22 Gy/h. It has been observed that gamma irradiation had a significant effect on tensile properties of 0.5 phr lignin-containing NBR elastomer. Another important finding was that gamma irradiation had no significant effect on the tensile strength when the lignin concentration in NBR is over 1 phr whereas 0.5 phr lignin incorporation led a 17% increase in tensile strength after 80 kGy irradiation. On the other hand, elongation of break values of all the compounds were decreased with increasing absorbed dose. When the absorbed dose was reached to 80 kGy, decrease in the elongation at break was 11% for 0.5 phr and 19% for 1 phr lignin containing systems. This decrease was also attributed the additional cross-linking reactions during irradiation although some of the cross-links were previously inhibited by lignin during vulcanization. Cross-link density measurements and mechanical properties of the samples were evaluated together and it was concluded that the dominant effect of radiation on NBR elastomers is further cross-linking reactions. On the other hand, this effect could be inhibited by incorporating limited amount of lignin (up to 1 phr) in the compound. The prominent mechanism of lignin was explained most probably as scavenging free radicals and diminishing radical-radical combination in NBR chains. Finally, lignin is concluded to have a protective effect on mechanical properties of NBR elastomers against irradiation. 1 phr lignin can be used as an anti-rad for radiation exposed NBR elastomers to keep original mechanical properties as almost the same.

Numerical Simulation of the Kinetics of Radical Decay in Single-Pulse High-Energy Electron-Irradiated Polymer Aqueous Solutions.

A new method for the numerical simulation of the radiation chemistry of aqueous polymer solutions is introduced. The method makes use of a deterministic approach combining the conventional homogeneous radiation chemistry of water with the chemistry of polymer radicals and other macromolecular species. The method is applied on single-pulse irradiations of aqueous polymer solutions. The speciation of macromolecular species accounts for the variations in the number of alkyl radicals per chain, molecular weight, and number of internal loops (as a consequence of an intramolecular radical-radical combination). In the simulations, the initial polymer molecular weight, polymer concentration, and dose per pulse (function of pulse length and dose rate during the pulse) were systematically varied. In total, 54 different conditions were simulated. The results are well in line with the available experimental data for similar systems. At a low polymer concentration and a high dose per pulse, the kinetics of radical decay is quite complex for the competition between intra- and intermolecular radical-radical reactions, whereas at a low dose per pulse the kinetics is purely second-order. The simulations demonstrate the limitations of the polymer in scavenging all the radicals generated by water radiolysis when irradiated at a low polymer concentration and a high dose per pulse. They also show that the radical decay of lower-molecular-weight chains is faster and to a larger extent dominated by intermolecular radical-radical reactions, thus explaining the mechanism behind the experimentally observed narrowing of molecular weight distributions.

Stable radicals during photodecarbonylations of trityl-alkyl ketones enable solid state reactions through primary and secondary radical centers

The solid state photoexcitation of several triphenylmethyl-alkyl ketones resulted in the loss of CO and the exclusive formation of radical-radical combination products. Differences in reactivity suggest a stepwise mechanism with the unprecedented formation of primary and secondary radicals in some of the radical pair intermediates in the solid state.

Encapsulation of nanomaterials within intermediary layer cross-linked micelles using a photo-cross-linking agent

A new method for encapsulating nanomaterials within intermediary layer cross-linked (ILCL) polymeric micelles using a bifunctional photo-cross-linking agent was developed. For ILCL polymeric micelles, an amphiphilic triblock copolymer of poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate)-b-poly(methyl methacrylate) (PEGPHEMA-PMMA) was synthesized via consecutive atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). Di(4-hydroxyl benzophenone) dodecanedioate (BPD) was used as a bifunctional photo-cross-linking agent. The PMMA-tethered Au nanoparticles and BPD, or pyrene and BPD were encapsulated in the PEG-PHEMA-PMMA micelles, and their intermediary layers were photo-cross-linked by UV irradiation for 1 h. The HEMA units donated labile hydrogens to the excited-state benzophenone groups in BPD, and they were subsequently cross-linked by BPD through radicalradical combination. The spherical structures of the PEG-PHEMA-PMMA micelles containing the Au nanoparticles or pyrene were unaffected by the photo-cross-linking process.

Radical reactions with double memory of chirality (2MOC) for the enantiospecific synthesis of adjacent stereogenic quaternary centers in solution: cleavage and bonding faster than radical rotation.

The solution photochemistry of bis(phenylpyrrolidinonyl)ketones (R,R)-1b and (S,S)-1b exhibited a remarkably high memory of chirality. Stereospecific decarbonylation to products (R,R)-3b and (S,S)-3b, respectively, occurred with an ee of ca. 80%. The reaction is thought to occur along the single state manifold by sequential Norrish type-I alpha-cleavage, decarbonylation, and radical-radical combination in a time scale that is comparable to that required for the radical intermediate to expose its other enantiotopic face by rotation about an axis perpendicular to that of the p orbital (ca. 3-7 ps). The absolute configuration of a key intermediate and that of ketone (R,R)-1b were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction and the ee values of the photochemical products with the help of chiral shift reagent (+)-Eu(tfc)(3) and chiral LC-MS/MS. On the basis of the ee and de values at 25 degrees C, it could be determined that ca. 70% of the bond forming events occur with double memory of chirality, ca. 21% occur after rotation of one radical to form the meso product (R,S)-3b, and only 9% occur after double rotation to form the opposite enantiomer. This report represents the first example of a doubly enantiospecific Norrish type-I and decarbonylation reaction in solution and illustrates potentially efficient ways to obtain compounds with adjacent stereogenic quaternary centers.

Absolute rate coefficients over extended temperature ranges and mechanisms of the CF(X2Π) reactions with F2, Cl2 and O2

The absolute rate coefficients of the reactions of the carbyne-radical CF(X(2)Pi, nu = 0) with O(2), F(2) and Cl(2) have been measured over extended temperature ranges, using pulsed-laser photodissociation-laser-induced fluorescence (PLP-LIF) techniques. The CF(X(2)Pi) radicals were generated by KrF excimer laser 2-photon photolysis of CF(2)Br(2) at 248 nm and the real-time exponential decays of CF(X(2)Pi, nu = 0) at varying coreactant concentrations, in large excess, were monitored by LIF (A(2)Sigma(+), nu' = 1 <-- X(2)Pi, nu'' = 0 transition). The experimental bimolecular rate coefficients of the CF(X(2)Pi) reactions with F(2) and Cl(2) can be described by simple Arrhenius expressions: k(F2)(295-408 K) = (1.5 +/- 0.2) x 10(-11) exp[-(370 +/- 40)K/T] cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1); and k(Cl2)(295-392 K) = (6.1 +/- 2.1) x 10(-12) exp[+(280 +/- 120)K/T]. The k(F2)(T) and k(Cl2)(T) results can be rationalized in terms of direct halogen-atom abstraction reactions in which the radical character of CF dominates; a quantum chemical CBS-Q//BHandHLYP/6-311G(d,p) study confirms that the ground state reactants CF(X(2)Pi) + F(2)(X(1)Sigma) connect directly with the ground-state products CF(2)(X(1)A(1)) + F((2)P) via a nearly barrierless F-atom abstraction route. The rate coefficient of CF(X(2)Pi) + O(2) can be represented by a two-term Arrhenius expression: k(O2)(258-780 K) = 1.1 x 10(-11) exp(-850 K/T) + 2.3 x 10(-13) exp(500 K/T), with a standard deviation of 5%. The first term dominates at higher temperatures T and the second at lower T where a negative temperature dependence is observed (<290 K). Quantum chemical computations at the CBS-QB3 and CCSD(T)/aug-cc-pVDZ levels of theory show that the k(O2)(T) behaviour is consistent with a change of the dominant rate-determining mechanism from a carbyne-type insertion into the O-O bond at high T to a radical-radical combination at low T.

Interaction of monomer radicals with nitroxides: A new access to the radical-radical combination rate constants

Acrylate, methacrylate and styrene monomer radicals produced by the addition of an aminoalkyl radical to the corresponding monomer unit were directly observed by laser flash photolysis. These radicals are characterized by a strong absorption in the near UV/visible part of the spectrum allowing to directly follow their interaction with different nitroxides usable in nitroxide mediated polymerization (NMP). The recombination rate constants were measured: they are in agreement with the literature data when available; other values are new. This procedure is fast and reliable.

Investigation of the gas phase reactivity of the 1-adamantyl radical using a distonic radical anion approach

The gas phase reactions of the bridgehead 3-carboxylato-1-adamantyl radical anion were observed with a series of neutral reagents using a modified electrospray ionisation linear ion trap mass spectrometer. This distonic radical anion was observed to undergo processes suggestive of radical reactivity including radical-radical combination reactions, substitution reactions and addition to carbon-carbon double bonds. The rate constants for reactions of the 3-carboxylato-1-adamantyl radical anion with the following reagents were measured (in units 10(-12) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1)): (18)O(2) (85 +/- 4), NO (38.4 +/- 0.4), I(2) (50 +/- 50), Br(2) (8 +/- 2), CH(3)SSCH(3) (12 +/- 2), styrene (1.20 +/- 0.03), CHCl(3) (H abstraction 0.41 +/- 0.06, Cl abstraction 0.65 +/- 0.1), CDCl(3) (D abstraction 0.035 +/- 0.01, Cl abstraction 0.723 +/- 0.005), allyl bromide (Br abstraction 0.53 +/- 0.04, allylation 0.25 +/- 0.01). Collision rates were calculated and reaction efficiencies are also reported. This study represents the first quantitative measurement of the gas phase reactivity of a bridgehead radical and suggests that distonic radical anions are good models for the study of their elusive uncharged analogues.

Combination vs. disproportionation in dialkyl biradicals. Selectivity reversal in a crystalline solid

While 1,6-biradicals produced by photodecarbonylation of dimethyl 11-oxodibenzo[c,h]bicyclo[4.4.1]undeca-3,8-diene-1,6-dicarboxylate (1) react exclusively by disproportionation in benzene solution, reactions in crystals lead to radical-radical combination reactions in almost quantitative yield.

Predictive theory for the combination kinetics of two alkyl radicals

An ab initio transition state theory based procedure for accurately predicting the combination kinetics of two alkyl radicals is described. This procedure employs direct evaluations of the orientation dependent interaction energies at the CASPT2/cc-pvdz level within variable reaction coordinate transition state theory (VRC-TST). One-dimensional corrections to these energies are obtained from CAS+1+2/aug-cc-pvtz calculations for CH3 + CH3 along its combination reaction path. Direct CAS+1+2/aug-cc-pvtz calculations demonstrate that, at least for the purpose of predicting the kinetics, the corrected CASPT2/cc-pvdz potential energy surface is an accurate approximation to the CAS+1+2/aug-cc-pvtz surface. Furthermore, direct trajectory simulations, performed at the B3LYP/6-31G* level, indicate that there is little local recrossing of the optimal VRC transition state dividing surface. The corrected CASPT2/cc-pvdz potential is employed in obtaining direct VRC-TST kinetic predictions for the self and cross combinations of methyl, ethyl, iso-propyl, and tert-butyl radicals. Comparisons with experiment suggest that the present dynamically corrected VRC-TST approach provides quantitatively accurate predictions for the capture rate. Each additional methyl substituent adjacent to a radical site is found to reduce the rate coefficient by about a factor of two. In each instance, the rate coefficients are predicted to decrease quite substantially with increasing temperature, with the more sterically hindered reactants having a more rapid decrease. The simple geometric mean rule, relating the capture rate for the cross reaction to those for the self-reactions, is in remarkably good agreement with the more detailed predictions. With suitable generalizations the present approach should be applicable to a wide array of radical-radical combination reactions.

Enantiospecific synthesis of vicinal stereogenic tertiary and quaternary centers by combination of configurationally-trapped radical pairs in crystalline solids.

[reaction: see text] Photochemical irradiation of crystalline (2R,4S)-2-carbomethoxy-4-cyano-2,4-diphenyl-3-butanone 1 led to highly efficient decarbonylation reactions. Experiments with optically pure and racemic crystals showed that the intermediate radical pairs undergo a highly diastereo- and enantiospecific radical-radical combination that leads to the formation of two adjacent stereogenic centers in good chemical yield and with high chemical control. Reactions with chiral crystals occurred with quantitative enantiomeric yields and >95% diastereomeric yields.

Supramolecular steric effects as the means of making reactive carbon radicals persistent. Quantitative characterization of the external surface of MFI zeolites through a persistent radical probe and a langmuir adsorption isotherm

The photochemistry of tetraphenylacetone (1) adsorbed on the external surface of a MFI zeolite (the sodium form of LZ-105) has been investigated in combination with computational chemistry, surface area measurements, EPR analysis, and classical adsorption isotherms. All of the methods are consistent with a supramolecular structural model in which 1 is first adsorbed strongly through intercalation of a single benzene ring into a hole on the LZ-105 external surface (site I) followed by a weaker binding to the external framework between the holes (site II) until a monolayer of 1 is formed. From both computational and surface area measurements, it is estimated that the site I holes on the external surface will be filled at ca. 0.3-0.5 wt %/wt loading of 1/LZ-105, which corresponds to 6.5 x 10(18) (ca. 10(-)(5) mol) of holes or molecules of 1 adsorbed in holes per gram of zeolite. The supramolecular composition of ca. 0.3-0.5% of 1 on LZ-105 characterizes a "break point" for the photochemistry and the EPR measurements, since it represents the value for saturation of the site I holes with 1. These conclusions are supported quantitatively by experimental isotherms of the adsorption of 1 on LZ-105. Photolysis of 1 intercalated in the site I holes causes fragmentation into two isomeric supramolecular diphenylmethyl (DPM) radicals, one (DMP)(in) which is adsorbed into the internal surface and becomes strongly persistent (half-life of many weeks) and the other (DMP)(ex) which diffuses on the external surface and rapidly dimerizes (less than a few minutes) to produce the radical-radical combination product tetraphenylethane (2). Photolysis of 1 adsorbed on the solid external surface produces two supramolecularly equivalent DPM radicals (DMP)(ex) that diffuse on the external surface and rapidly dimerize to produce 2, and do not produce persistent DPM radicals.

Sonolysis and radiolysis of glyceraldehyde in deaerated aqueous solution

The objective of this work was to contribute to the mechanism of the sonolytic and radiolytic reactions leading in deaerated aqueous solutions of sugars to products by radical-radical combination. For this purpose glyceraldehyde, the first homologue of the series of aldoses, was investigated. Primary glyceraldehyde radicals are produced by abstraction of carbon-bonded hydrogen atoms by sonolytic or radiolytic H and OH radicals. Secondary glyceraldehyde radicals are derived from primary radicals by elimination of water. Both kinds of radicals were found to participate in dimer production.

DNA-protein cross-linking between thymine and tyrosine in chromatin of γ-irradiated or H 2O 2-treated cultured human cells

Formation of DNA-protein cross-links between thymine and tyrosine in chromatin of γ-irradiated or H 2O 2-treated cultured human cells is reported. Chromatin was isolated from cells, and subsequently hydrolyzed and derivatized. Analysis of derivatized hydrolysates by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry with selected-ion monitoring showed that 3-[(1,3-dihydro-2,4-dioxopyrimidin-5-yl)-methyl]- l-tyrosine (ThyTyr cross-link) was formed. The presence of this DNA-protein crosslink in control cells was also observed at a level of ≈7 molecules per 10 6 DNA nucleotides. Exposure of cells to ionizing radiation at doses between 8.7 and 82 Gy (J · kg −1) increased the amount of the ThyTyr cross-link linearly up to ≈ four fold over the background level. At doses higher than 82 Gy, the yield approached a plateau. Treatment of cells with H 2O 2 (0.5 to 10 m m) also increased the amount of the Thy-Tyr cross-link in a concentration-dependent manner. Addition of dimethyl sulfoxide and o-phenanthroline in the culture medium afforded partial inhibition of cross-link formation. Addition of catalase inhibitor KCN prior to H 2O 2 treatment increased the yield of cross-linking over the level observed with H 2O 2 treatment alone. Pretreatment of cells with ascorbic acid for 24 h without H 2O 2 caused formation of the ThyTyr cross-link. This DNA-protein crosslink in chromatin of cells is proposed to be formed by mechanisms involving a radical addition reaction and/or a radical-radical combination involving thymine and tyrosine radicals. Hydroxyl radical mediated by chromatin-bound metal ions is proposed to cause the formation of the Thy-Tyr cross-link in H 2O 2-treated cells.

Fast-flow microwave discharge studies of the system cabon tetrafluoride-carbon tetrachloride

Fast-flow microwave-induced glow discharge studies were carried out in systems containing CCl 4 and CF 4 at pressures in the region of 10-100 mTorr. The purpose of these investigations was to obtain information bearing on possible mechanistic steps in similar mixtures under γ-radiolysis. It was found that fragments from a discharge in CF 4 readily attack CCl 4 added downstream by displacement and abstraction processes giving cholorofluoromethanes and there is a similar although much less extensive attack of fragments from CCl 4 reacting with CF 4. Two-carbon fragments were noted in the mass spectrometer used to monitor the reactions only from discharges containing both compounds, indicating formation of chlorofluoroethanes by radical-radical combination reactions. There is some evidence for reactions involving difluorocarbene. These and other observations are consistent with the result of radiolysis experiments.

The Radiation Chemistry of Thymine in Aqueous Solution

SummaryThe electron and OH adducts of thymine formed on irradiation of thymine in aqueous solutions containing O2 react rapidly with the dissolved O2 : k(TOH + O2) = 1·5 × 109 M−1 sec−1 and k(T− + O2) = 8 × 109 M−1 sec−1. In both reactions O2 adds to the thymine radical, producing T(OH)O2 and TO2−. It is shown that TO2− is ultimately converted into H2O2 and thymine, when the OH radicals are scavenged by a second organic solute. In the absence of O2 and in the presence of formate or isopropanol evidence is presented that the thymine negative ion (or its protonated form) disproportionates, producing thymine and dihydrothymine. In low dose-rate, steady-state radiolysis, CO2− radicals destroy the chromophore of thymine in competition with a radical-radical combination reaction of CO2−. With the high dose-rates used in pulse-radiolysis only these radical—radical reactions can occur.