Radical Adduct Research Articles

The degradation of methyl orange by OH radicals in aqueous environments: A DFT study on the mechanism, kinetics, temperature and pH effects

Methyl orange (MO) is extensively used in the food, textile, leather, and paper industries. As with many industrial chemicals, while primary environmental effects are documented, the secondary effects from its natural degradation have not been fully established. This study employs quantum chemical calculations to investigate the reaction of MO with HO• radicals that is a typical breakdown pathway in aqueous environments. It was found that the HO• + MO reaction in water can occur via either hydrogen transfer, single electron transfer, or radical adduct formation mechanisms, resulting in a variety of metastable intermediates and products. The calculated total rate constant (ktotal = 2.43×1010 M−1 s−1 at 298 K, pH = 9.2) is in good agreement with the experimental rate constant (kExp = (2.0 ± 0.3) ×1010 M−1 s−1at 298 K, pH = 9.2), thus confirming the accuracy of the calculation method. MO can degrade in natural water within the broad time range of 3.28 hrs to 56.6 years. The breakdown of methyl orange by HO• radicals is more effective at high temperatures and basic pH levels.

Reactions of Diphenylamine with OH Radicals in the Environment: Theoretical Insights into the Mechanism, Kinetics, Temperature, and pH Effects.

Diphenylamine (DPL) has been widely utilized in industrial chemicals, but its degradation by HO• radicals in the environment has not been fully studied yet. The present study uses quantum chemical calculations to evaluate the reaction of DPL with HO• radicals in atmospheric and aqueous environments. The results showed that, in the atmosphere, the diphenylamine reacted with the HO• radical rapidly, with an overall rate constant of 9.24 × 1011 to 1.34 × 1011 M-1 s-1 and a lifetime of 0.17 to 1.55 h at 253-323 K. The calculated overall rate constant in water (koverall = 1.95 × 1010 M-1 s-1, pH = 3-14) is in excellent agreement with the experimental value (koverall = 1.00 × 1010-1.36 × 1010 M-1 s-1). The HO• + DPL reaction in water could occur following the hydrogen transfer (15.4%), single electron transfer (41.6%), and radical adduct formation (41.7%) mechanisms, clarifying that addition products were not exclusive products. Nevertheless, variations in temperature and pH within aqueous environments had an impact on the mechanisms, kinetics, and degradation products of the reaction of DPL with HO• radicals.

Atmospheric Chemistry of Chloroprene Initiated by OH Radicals: Combined Ab Initio/DFT Calculations and Kinetics Analysis.

Chloroprene (CP; CH2═C(Cl)-CH═CH2) is a significant toxic airborne pollutant, often originating from anthropogenic activities. However, the environmental fate of CP is incompletely understood. High level CCSD(T)/aug-cc-pVTZ//M06-2X/aug-cc-pVTZ calculations combined with kinetic modeling were employed here to glean new insight into the reaction mechanism, energies, and kinetics of the reaction of CP with OH radical (•OH). We report the energies of four different addition pathways and six different abstraction pathways. The •OH attack on the terminal C1 atom of the =CH2 group (which is directly attached to the =CCl moiety), leading to the formation of HOCH2-•C(Cl)-CH═CH2, was found to be a major path. The barrier height for the formation of the corresponding transition state was found to be -1.9 kcal mol-1 below that of the starting CP + •OH reactants. Rate coefficients were calculated for addition and abstraction pathways involving the CP + •OH reaction under pre-equilibrium approximation conditions, employing a combination of canonical variational transition state theory and small curvature tunneling. The overall rate coefficient for the reaction of CP + •OH at 298 K was found to be 1.4 × 10-10 cm3 molecule-1 s-1. The thermochemistry of the possible channels and atmospheric implications are provided. In addition, the fate of HOCH2-•C(Cl)-CH═CH2 in the presence of 3O2 was investigated. We found the reaction of the CP-derived peroxy radical adduct with HO2 and NO to make contributions to the formation of products such as formaldehyde, HO2 radical, Cl atom, HOCH2C(OOH)(Cl)CH═CH2, HOCH2C(O)Cl, ClC(O)CH═CH2, HOCH2C(O)CH═CH2, and HC(O) radical.

Theoretical insight into the removal process of isoquinoline by UV/Cl and UV/PDS: Oxidation mechanism and toxicity assessment

Isoquinoline (IQL), as a typical nitrogen-containing heterocyclic contaminant in coking wastewater, poses a serious threat to the aquatic environment and human health. Due to its chemical stability, traditional sewage treatment technology is not highly efficient in IQL removal. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) driven by ultraviolet radiation could be an effective treatment method, but it could generate toxic byproducts. In this work, the removal of IQL initiated by HO•, ClO•, Cl•, and SO4•- in UV/chlorine and UV/persulfate (PDS) process was comprehensively investigated, clarifying the degradation mechanism, reaction kinetics, and ecological toxicity. The findings indicate that the dominant oxidation mechanism of IQL by HO•, ClO•, and Cl• is radical adduct formation (RAF), while single electron transfer (SET) is the main reaction pathway of SO4•- with IQL. At 298 K and 1 atm, the order of rate constants for the reactions of IQL with active radicals is Cl• (6.23 × 1010 M-1 s-1) > SO4•- (8.81 × 109 M-1 s-1) > HO• (1.66 × 109 M-1 s-1) > ClO• (1.62 × 108 M-1 s-1). The acute and chronic toxicity of IQL and its degradation byproducts at three different trophic levels were evaluated using ECOSAR program. The byproducts produced by the oxidative degradation of IQL by HO• and SO4•- are mostly “not harmful”, and their toxicity shows a decreasing trend compared to that of IQL. The byproducts derived from the reaction of IQL with Cl• are all “toxic” or “harmful”, and the ranking of harm to three types of aquatic organisms is green algae > fish > daphnia. Hence, UV/PDS process could be more secure in pollutant disposal in wastewater. In actual water treatment process, merit attention should be paid to the potential hazards of the byproducts generated by various contaminants.

Scavenging of Alkylperoxyl Radicals by Addition to Ascorbate: An Alternative Mechanism to Electron Transfer.

Vitamin C (ascorbate; Asc) is a biologically important antioxidant that scavenges reactive oxygen species such as deleterious alkylperoxyl radicals (ROO•), which are generated by radical-mediated oxidation of biomolecules in the presence of oxygen. The radical trapping proprieties of Asc are conventionally attributed to its ability to undergo single-electron transfers with reactive species. According to this mechanism, the reaction between Asc and ROO• results in the formation of dehydroascorbate (DHA) and the corresponding hydroperoxides (ROOH). When studying the reactivity of DNA 5-(2'-deoxyuridinyl)methylperoxyl radicals, we discovered a novel pathway of ROO• scavenging by Asc. The purpose of this study is to elucidate the underlying mechanism of this reaction with emphasis on the characterization of intermediate and final decomposition products. We show that the trapping of ROO• by Asc leads to the formation of an alcohol (ROH) together with an unstable cyclic oxalyl-l-threonate intermediate (cOxa-Thr), which readily undergoes hydrolysis into a series of open-chain oxalyl-l-threonic acid regioisomers. The structure of products was determined by detailed MS and NMR analyses. The above transformation can be explained by initial peroxyl radical addition (PRA) onto the C2=C3 enediol portion of Asc. Following oxidation of the resulting adduct radical, the product subsequently undergoes Baeyer-Villiger rearrangement, which releases ROH and generates the ring expansion product cOxa-Thr. The present investigation provides robust clarifications of the peroxide-mediated oxidation chemistry of Asc and DHA that has largely been obscured in the past by interference with autooxidation reactions and difficulties in analyzing and characterizing oxidation products. Scavenging of ROO• by PRA onto Asc may have beneficial consequences since it directly converts ROO• into ROH, which prevents the formation of potentially deleterious ROOH, although it induces the breakdown of Asc into fragments of oxalyl-l-threonic acid.

Differences in the Reaction Mechanisms of Chlorine Atom and Hydroxyl Radical with Organic Compounds: From Thermodynamics to Kinetics.

Hydroxyl radical (HO•) and chlorine atom (Cl•) are common reactive species in aqueous environments. However, the intrinsic difference in their reactions with organic compounds has not been revealed. This study compared the reaction mechanisms of HO• and Cl• with 13 aromatic and 11 aliphatic compounds by quantum chemical calculation and laser flash photolysis. Both HO• and Cl• can spontaneously react with aromatic compounds via radical adduct formation (RAF), hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), and single electron transfer (SET) pathways. The SET reactions of Cl• were more thermodynamically favorable than HO•, but contrary results were obtained for HAT reactions. According to the free energy of activation (ΔGaq‡), the dominant oxidation mechanisms of aromatic compounds were RAF and SET by HO• and SET by Cl•. The important role of SET in the HO• reactions with aromatic compounds was further verified by accurately calculating the solvation free energy of HO•/HO- and experimentally tracking the radical cations, which were generally neglected in previous studies. Meanwhile, the ΔGaq‡ value of each reaction pathway of Cl• was lower than that of HO•, resulting in higher rate constants of Cl• with aromatic compounds than HO•. For saturated aliphatic compounds, HAT was found to be the only mechanism accounting for their transformation by HO• and Cl•. This study proposed general rules for the reaction mechanisms of HO• and Cl• and unraveled their differences in the aspects of thermodynamics and kinetics, providing fundamental information for understanding contaminant transformation in processes involving HO• and Cl•.

Exploring antioxidative properties of xanthohumol and isoxanthohumol: An integrated experimental and computational approach with isoxanthohumol pKa determination

This study explores the antioxidative activities of xanthohumol (XN) and isoxanthohumol (IXN), prenylated flavonoids from Humulus lupulus (family Cannabaceae), utilizing the oxygen radical absorption capacity (ORAC) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays along with computational Density Functional Theory methods. Experimentally, XN demonstrated significantly higher antioxidative capacities than IXN. Moreover, we determined IXN pKa values using the UV/Vis spectrophotometric method for the first time, facilitating its accurate computational modeling under physiological conditions. Through a thermodynamic approach, XN was found to efficiently scavenge HOO• and CH3O• radicals via Hydrogen Atom Transfer (HAT) and Radical Adduct Formation (RAF) mechanisms, while CH3OO• scavenging was feasible only through the HAT pathway. IXN exhibited its best antioxidative activity against CH3O• via both HAT and RAF mechanisms and could also scavenge HOO• through RAF. Both Single Electron Transfer (SET) and Sequential Proton Loss-Electron Transfer (SPLET) mechanisms were thermodynamically unfavorable for all radicals and both compounds.

The inhibitory potential of 4,7-dihydroxycoumarin derivatives on ROS-producing enzymes and direct HOO•/o2 • – radical scavenging activity – a comprehensive kinetic DFT study

This study examined the antiradical activity of three synthesized coumarin derivatives: (E)-3-(1-((2-hydroxyphenyl)amino)ethylidene)-2,4-dioxochroman-7-yl acetate (A1-OH), (E)-3-(1-((3-hydroxyphenyl)amino)ethylidene)-2,4-dioxochroman-7-yl acetate (A2-OH), and (E)-3-(1-((4-hydroxyphenyl)amino)ethylidene)-2,4-dioxochroman-7-yl acetate (A3-OH) against HOO•/O2•− radical species. The investigation included electron spin resonance (ESR) measurements and a DFT kinetic study. Thermodynamic and kinetic parameters of antiradical mechanisms—Formal Hydrogen Atom Transfer (f-HAT), Radical Adduct Formation (RAF), Sequential Proton Loss followed by Electron Transfer (SPLET), and Single-Electron Transfer followed by Proton Transfer (SET-PT)—were evaluated using the Quantum Mechanics-based test for Overall Free Radical Scavenging Activity (QM–ORSA) under physiological conditions. ESR results indicated antiradical activity decreased in the sequence A1–OH (58.7%) > A2–OH (57.5%) > A3–OH (53.1%). Kinetic analysis revealed the f-HAT mechanism dominated HOO• inactivation. A newly formulated Sequential Proton Loss followed by Radical Adduct Formation (SPL-RAF) mechanism described interactions with O2 •−. The activity toward O2 •− was A2–OH (1.26 × 106 M−1s−1) > A3–OH (7.71 × 105 M−1s−1) > A1–OH (4.22 × 105 M−1s−1). Molecular docking and dynamics studies tested inhibitory capability against enzymes producing reactive species: Lipoxygenase (LOX), Myeloperoxidase (MPO), NAD(P)H oxidase (NOX), and Xanthine Oxidase (XOD). Affinity to enzymes decreased in the order: XOD > LOX > NOX > MPO.

Detection of lipid radicals generated via cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury using a radiolabeled nitroxide probe

Reactive oxygen species generated via reperfusion cause lipid damage and induce lipid peroxidation, leading to cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury and exacerbation of cerebral infarction. Lipid radicals are key molecules generated during lipid peroxidation. Therefore, understanding the spatiotemporal behavior of lipid radicals is important to improve the therapeutic outcomes of cerebral infarction. However, the behaviors of lipid radicals in the brain remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the distribution of radioactivity in a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) model using lipid radical detection probe [125I]1 to assess the behaviors of lipid radicals after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. The tMCAO model administered [125I]1 exhibited significant differences in the timing and location of radioactivity accumulation between the ischemic and non-ischemic regions. Liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis identified the lipid radical adducts formed by the reaction of 1 with the lipid radicals generated after reperfusion. More adducts were detected in the ischemic region samples than in the non-ischemic region samples. Therefore, 1 successfully detected the lipid radicals generated after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential of nuclear medical imaging using radiolabeled 1 to detect the lipid radicals generated after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. Our approach can aid in the development of new therapeutic agents scavenging lipid radicals after cerebral reperfusion by facilitating the determination of therapeutic efficacy and optimal administration period.

Photoinduced Electron-Transfer-Mediated Differential Recognition of Proteins on Plasmonic Surfaces.

Photoinduced enhanced Raman spectroscopy (PIERS) has emerged as an efficient technique for enhancing the vibrational modes of analyte molecules adsorbed on a plasmonic nanoparticle-semiconductor hybrid material through chemical enhancement governed by electron transfer from the semiconductor to the plasmonic nanoparticles under an additional ultraviolet (UV) preirradiation step. The increase in chemical enhancement is imperative in analyzing and detecting pharmaceutically important moieties, such as amino acids and proteins, with a low Raman scattering cross section, even in complex biological environments. Herein, we demonstrate that UV preirradiation induced the creation of additional oxygen vacancies by introducing a low concentration (≈1%) of Ni as a dopant in the 2D platelike morphology of the BiOCl semiconductor; i.e., defect states in the semiconductor can induce charge transfer from the semiconductor to the plasmonic nanoparticles. This phenomenon facilitates electron transfer to the adsorbed analyte on the plasmonic surface. Additionally, we have shown the usefulness of this method in protein immobilization on the substrate surface, followed by the identification of a specific protein in the mixture of proteins. Proteins containing cysteine residues capture these electrons to form a surface-bound thiol group via a transient disulfide electron adduct radical. This allows differential binding of the protein molecules to the semiconductor plasmonic hybrid depending on the concentration of surface cysteine residues in proteins. Through PIERS and principal component analysis, we demonstrate the possibility of probing and distinguishing biomolecules based on their surface composition and secondary structure components even in their mixtures, thus paving the way for efficient analysis of complex biological systems.

Radical reactivity of antiaromatic Ni(II) norcorroles with azo radical initiators.

Norcorrole is a stable 16π-antiaromatic porphyrinoid that exhibits characteristic reactivities and physical properties. Here, we disclose the reaction of Ni(II) norcorroles with alkyl radicals derived from azo radical initiators. The radical selectively attacked the distal α-position relative to the meso-position to construct a nonaromatic bowl-shaped structure. The photophysical and electrochemical properties of the obtained radical adducts were compared to those of the parent Ni(II) norcorrole. The radical reactivity of Ni(II) norcorroles was investigated by density functional theory (DFT) calculations.

On the dual role of (+)-catechin as primary antioxidant and inhibitor of viral proteases

Natural antioxidants have become the subject of many investigations due to the role that they play in the reduction of oxidative stress. Their main scavenging mechanisms concern the direct inactivation of free radicals and the coordination of metal ions involved in Fenton-like reactions. Recently, increasing attention has been paid to non-covalent inhibition of enzymes involved in different diseases by the antioxidants. Here, a computational investigation on the primary antioxidant power of (+)-catechin against the •OOH radical has been performed in both lipid-like and aqueous environments, taking into account the relevant species present in the simulated acid-base equilibria at the physiological pH. Hydrogen Atom Transfer (HAT), Single Electron Transfer (SET), and Radical Adduct Formation (RAF) mechanisms were studied, and relative rate constants were estimated. The potential inhibitory activity of the (+)-catechin towards the most important proteases from SARS-CoV-2, 3C-like (Mpro) and papain-like (PLpro) proteases was also investigated by MD simulations to provide deeper atomistic insights on the binding sites.Based on the antioxidant and antiviral properties also unravelled by comparison with other molecules having similar chemical scaffold, our results propose that (+)-CTc satisfies can explicate a dual action as antioxidant and antiviral in particular versus Mpro from SARS-CoV-2.

Trace Br- Inhibits Halogenated Byproduct Formation in Saline Wastewater Electrochemical Treatment.

The electrochemical technology provides a practical and viable solution to the global water scarcity issue, but it has an inherent challenge of generating toxic halogenated byproducts in treatment of saline wastewater. Our study reveals an unexpected discovery: the presence of a trace amount of Br- not only enhanced the electrochemical oxidation of organic compounds with electron-rich groups but also significantly reduced the formation of halogenated byproducts. For example, in the presence of 20 μM Br-, the oxidation rate of phenol increased from 0.156 to 0.563 min-1, and the concentration of total organic halogen decreased from 59.2 to 8.6 μM. Through probe experiments, direct electron transfer and HO• were ruled out as major contributors; transient absorption spectroscopy (TAS) and computational kinetic models revealed that trace Br- triggers a shift in the dominant reactive species from Cl2•- to Br2•-, which plays a key role in pollutant removal. Both TAS and electron paramagnetic resonance identified signals unique to the phenoxyl and carbon-centered radicals in the Br2•--dominated system, indicating distinct reaction mechanisms compared to those involving Cl2•-. Kinetic isotope experiments and density functional theory calculations confirmed that the interaction between Br2•- and phenolic pollutants follows a hydrogen atom abstraction pathway, whereas Cl2•- predominantly engages pollutants through radical adduct formation. These insights significantly enhance our understanding of bromine radical-involved oxidation processes and have crucial implications for optimizing electrochemical treatment systems for saline wastewater.

Characteristic reactivity of 3-acetamido-5-acetylfuran under oxidation conditions

Abstract Chitin is an abundant nitrogen-containing biomass and a major derivative is 3-acetamido-5-acetylfuran (3A5AF). The oxidation of 3A5AF could produce 3-acetamido-5-carboxyfuran (3A5CF), which is a promising monomer for producing nitrogen-containing polymers. However, the conversion of 3A5AF into 3A5CF is actually difficult. The present study clarifies the characteristic reactivity of 3A5AF under typical oxidation reaction conditions. Specifically, corresponding benzene derivatives or acetylfuran are transformed into carboxylic acids, but 3A5AF cannot. Then, density functional theory calculations indicate that 3A5AF facilitates the radical addition reaction on the furan ring instead of the oxidation of the C-acetyl group. In addition to the low aromaticity of furan, the acetamido group stabilizes the radical adduct by orbital interactions. Finally, we provide a potential methodology to decrease the reactivity of the furan ring in 3A5AF.

The Environmental Pollutant NO3⋅ Rapidly Damages Alkene Moieties in Lipids Through Electron Transfer

AbstractThe presence of alkene moieties in fatty acids of (phospho)lipids and cholesterol derivatives makes them highly susceptible to damage by nitrate radicals (NO3⋅), potentially formed through simultaneous exposure to the environmental air pollutants nitrogen dioxide (NO2⋅) and ozone (O3). Absolute rate coefficients derived from reactions with simplified model systems range from 4 to 8×109 M−1 s−1 in acetonitrile, ranking among the highest determined for NO3⋅ reactions with biomolecules in solution to date. Alkenes featuring an electron‐withdrawing carbonyl substituent also display notable reactivity with k values of (2.5±1.0)×108 M−1 s−1. Calculations suggest that these reactions are initiated by oxidative electron transfer (ET) involving the C=C bond, followed by recombination of the resulting alkene radical cation with nitrate anion (NO3−) to form the nitrate adduct radical as the kinetically controlled product. Conversely, saturated fatty acid derivatives and cholestanol react with NO3⋅ through hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) with rate coefficients of 106–107 M−1 s−1, indicating that biomolecules with a considerable number of non‐ or moderately activated sp3 C−H bonds are also highly susceptible to NO3⋅ attack. These findings underscore the potential health hazards associated with exposure to combined NO2⋅ and O3 gases.

Dual roles of the inorganic aqueous phase on secondary organic aerosol growth from benzene and phenol

Abstract. Benzene, emitted from automobile exhaust and biomass burning, is ubiquitous in ambient air. Benzene is a precursor hydrocarbon (HC) that forms secondary organic aerosol (SOA), but its SOA formation mechanism is not well studied. To accurately predict the formation of benzene SOA, it is important to understand the gas mechanisms of phenol, which is one of the major products formed from the atmospheric oxidation of benzene. Laboratory data presented herein highlight the impact of the aqueous phase on SOA generated through benzene and phenol oxidation. The roles of the aqueous phase consist of (1) suppression of the aging of hydrocarbon and (2) conventional acid-catalyzed reactions in the inorganic phase. To explain this unusual effect, it is hypothesized that a persistent phenoxy radical (PPR) effectively forms via a heterogeneous reaction of phenol and phenol-related products in the presence of wet inorganic aerosol. These PPR species are capable of catalytically consuming ozone during an NOx cycle and negatively influencing SOA growth. In this study, explicit gas mechanisms were derived to produce the oxygenated products from the atmospheric oxidation of phenol or benzene. Gas mechanisms include the existing Master Chemical Mechanism (MCM v3.3.1), the reaction path for peroxy radical adducts originating from the addition of an OH radical to phenols forming low-volatility products (e.g., multi-hydroxy aromatics), and the mechanisms to form heterogeneous production of PPR. The simulated gas products were classified into volatility- and reactivity-based lumped species and incorporated into the Unified Partitioning Aerosol Reaction (UNIPAR) model that predicts SOA formation via multiphase reactions of phenol or benzene. The predictability of the UNIPAR model was examined using chamber data, which were generated for the photooxidation of phenol or benzene under controlled experimental conditions (NOx levels, humidity, and inorganic seed types). The SOA formation from both phenol and benzene still increased in the presence of wet inorganic seed because of the oligomerization of reactive organic species in the aqueous phase. However, model simulations show a significant suppression of ozone, the oxidation of phenol or benzene, and SOA growth compared with those without PPR mechanisms. The production of PPR is accelerated in the presence of acidic aerosol and this weakens SOA growth. In benzene oxidation, up to 53 % of the oxidation pathway is connected to phenol formation in the reported gas mechanism. Thus, the contribution of PPR to gas mechanisms is less than that of phenol. Overall, SOA growth in phenol or benzene is negatively related to NOx levels in the high-NOx region (HC ppbC / NOx ppb < 5). However, the simulation indicates that the significance of PPR rises with decreasing NOx levels. Hence, the influence of NOx levels on SOA formation from phenol or benzene is complex under varying temperature and seed type conditions. Adding the comprehensive reaction of phenolic compounds will improve the prediction of SOA formation from aromatic HCs due to the missing mechanisms in the current air quality model.

Comprehensive kinetic investigation of antiradical activity of urolithins and their potential inhibitory effect on Xanthine Dehydrogenase

This work aimed to explore the antiradical activity of various ellagitannin metabolites, including Urolithin A (UroA), Urolithin B (UroB), Urolithin C (UroC), and Urolithin D (UroD), in a non-polar (benzene) and polar (water) medium. The antiradical effect of the investigated compounds against reactive oxygen species HO• was evaluated in water (physiological conditions) and benzene, while against CH3OO• and CCl3OO• it was assessed solely in benzene, using the Quantum Mechanics-based Test for Overall Free-radical Scavenging Activity (QM-ORSA) methodology. In non-polar media, compounds UroA, UroC, and UroD exhibit antiradical capabilities against the HO• through Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) and Radical Adduct Formation (RAF) processes. Conversely, UroB predominantly exhibits inhibitory activity on HO• through the RAF pathway. On the other hand, the reaction with CH3OO• and CCl3OO• only occurs through the Hydrogen Atom Transfer (HAT). Under physiological conditions, all investigated compounds show antiradical capacity against the HO•, primarily via the SPLET and RCF mechanisms. The reactivity of radical species in both solvents decreases in the following order: HO• > CCl3OO• > CH3OO•. The thermodynamic and kinetic parameters in both solvents indicate that the investigated compounds’ reactivity follows a decreasing order of UroD > UroA > UroC > UroB. Furthermore, newly formed radical species of urolithin exhibit lower reactivity towards the fatty acid model in comparison to investigated reactive radical species, potentially preventing lipid peroxidation initiation. The investigated compounds can regenerate glutathione (GSH) by providing a hydrogen atom to the glutathione radical (GS•), which forms during interaction with highly reactive radical species. In water, tested compounds also regenerate GSH by donating H atoms to GS•, as well as by transferring electrons from dominant acid-base species to GS•, followed by protonation of the resulting GS¯. Urolithins showed similar inhibitory effects as the conventional inhibitors Y-700, FYX-051, and Febuxostat on Xanthine Dehydrogenase (XDH). Reactivity towards XDH enzyme decreases in the following order UroC > UroB > UroD > UroA.

A Photoinduced Radical Cascade Cyclization for the Synthesis of Angularly Fused Tricyclic Compounds.

A photoinduced electron transfer (PET)-triggered cascade reaction has been devised for the conversion of second-generation enol silyl ethers into angularly fused tricyclic scaffolds. Utilizing readily available and cost-effective DCA and phenanthrene as the catalytic systems, this cascade transformation is achieved with high efficiency. The reaction demonstrates a good substrate scope and excellent stereoselectivity, thereby enriching the realm of PET-induced cascade reactions. Additionally, the radical adducts generated through this process can serve as valuable subunits for the synthesis of complex molecules.

Chlorination mechanism of benzene series in aqueous system under the combined action of Cl- and multiple free radicals

In this study, non-targeted analysis revealed that the Fe2+/perodisulfate/Cl- system degraded aniline (AN) and nitrobenzene (NB), yielding 7 types and 4 types of aromatic chlorides, respectively. In order to explore their chlorination mechanism and the influence of different functional groups, various reactions (radical adduct formation (RAF), hydrogen atom abstraction (HAA) and single electron transfer (SET)) of benzene series with various functional group with sulfate radical (SO4·-), hydroxyl radical (·OH), chlorine radical (·Cl) and dichloride anion radicals (Cl2·-) were explored by Gibbs free energy (ΔG), and the subsequent reactions of SET and HAA products (organic free radical) were innovatively explored by ΔG. This study revealed that the reaction between benzene compounds containing electron-donating groups and ·Cl was dominated by HAA rather than RAF; the reaction between benzene compounds containing electron-withdrawing groups and ·Cl was dominated by RAF. Aromatic compounds containing electron-donating groups can undergo SET reaction and generate aromatic chlorides in the presence of O2 and Cl-. Combined with the product analysis, it was found that the HAA reaction of aromatic compounds will lead to the obvious formation of biphenyl compounds and aromatic chlorides in the presence of Cl-. Compared with the conditions of RAF of ·Cl and chlorination of SET products, the chlorination reaction between HAA products and Cl- is ubiquitous, which is more likely to be the key to the formation of aromatic chlorides in mixed systems. This study provides a theoretical basis for further study on the formation risk of chlorinated products in advanced oxidation process.

Unpacking the diversity of monoterpene oxidation pathways via nitrooxy–alkyl radical ring-opening reactions and nitrooxy–alkoxyl radical bond scissions

Terrestrial vegetation emits vast quantities of monoterpenes to the atmosphere. These compounds, once oxidized, can contribute to the formation and growth of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) particles. However, studies report widely different SOA yields from atmospheric oxidation of different monoterpenes, despite their structural similarities. The NO3-radical-initiated oxidation of α-pinene for instance, leads to minimal SOA yields, whereas with Δ-carene a high SOA yield is observed. A previous study indicated that their oxidation mechanisms diverge after formation of a nitrooxy–alkoxyl radical intermediate, whose C–C bond scission reactions can either lead to early termination of the oxidative chain, thus limiting the yield of condensable vapors, or further propagate it, leading to low-volatility products. In this study, we employ computational methods to investigate these reactions in the NO3-radical oxidation of five other monoterpenes: limonene, sabinene, β-pinene, α-thujene and camphene. Additionally, we explore the possibility of rearrangement via ring-opening of the nitrooxy-alkyl radical adducts produced immediately after NO3 radical attack. Our calculations predict that alkyl radical rearrangement is dominant over O2-addition for sabinene, minor but competitive for α-thujene and β-pinene, and negligible for camphene. These rearrangements can induce further propagation of the oxidative chain, and thus higher SOA yields. Concerning alkoxyl radical C–C bond scissions, our results indicate that endocyclic nitrate species (derived from limonene and α-thujene) react preferentially via the channel leading to oxidative chain termination, whereas exocyclic nitrate species (sabinene, β-pinene, and camphene) react preferentially via channels leading to further propagation.