Radial Tire Research Articles

Finite Element Modeling of Steel Cord in Engineering Radial Tires Using Parametric Equations

Finite Element Modeling of Steel Cord in Engineering Radial Tires Using Parametric Equations

Exploring experimental and finite element analysis to examine nano zinc oxide as a replacement for rubber‐grade zinc oxide in passenger car tire bead filler compounds

AbstractThe investigation demonstrates the potential of nano zinc oxide as a substitute for conventional rubber grade zinc oxide in the bead filler compound of passenger car tires, aimed at reducing heat generation while preserving mechanical and reinforcement properties. Experimentation showed that introducing nano zinc oxide increased compound viscosity, indicating enhanced filler networking. Cure rates accelerated due to the higher surface area of nano zinc oxides, while the Payne effect indicated improved dispersion levels in experimental compounds. Notably, the variant with four parts per hundred rubber of nano zinc oxide exhibited mechanical properties akin to the control, alongside a 28% reduction in tan δ and improvements in hysteresis loss ratio and specific heat values. Morphological analysis confirmed superior dispersion in experimental compounds. Finite element analysis demonstrated decreased temperature generation and a reduced percentage contribution of the bead filler to overall heat energy in tires, leading to a 3% drop in rolling resistance. These findings suggest that nano zinc oxide can effectively replace conventional zinc oxide, enhancing fuel economy in tires, thereby offering a green initiative to reduce fuel consumption in passenger car radial tires through improved hysteresis at the bead area via bead filler compound modification.Highlights Nano zinc oxide replaces rubber grade zinc oxide reducing heat generation. Nano zinc oxide improves compound viscosity, enhancing filler networking. Variant with four parts per hundred rubber of nano zinc oxide matches control's mechanics, with 28% lower tan δ. Morphological analysis confirms dispersion, coupled with aggregation. Simulation shows lower temperature generation and 3% less rolling resistance.

Effects of road- vs. field-recommended tyre inflation pressures and small variations in soil moisture content on traffic-induced soil compaction during seedbed preparation

Soil compaction has become one of the most common forms of soil degradation, with associated negative effects on the functioning of agricultural soils. Decades of research have led to publication of several practical measures that mitigate risk of soil compaction, yet adoption among European farmers remains limited. To improve adoption by farmers, experiments under practical conditions using common operations should be performed. A field experiment was set up to evaluate the effects of road- (200 kPa) vs. field- (140 kPa and 100 kPa) recommended tyre inflation pressure and soil moisture content (0.24 g g−1 vs. 0.22 g g−1) on traffic-induced compaction of a silt loam soil during seedbed preparation. The various tyre inflation pressures were tested using two tyre types (standard radial tyre at 200 kPa and 140 kPa; VF tyre at 100 kPa) of similar dimensions mounted onto the same tractor. Variation in experimental soil moisture content was achieved by performing the seedbed preparation on two dates in spring (early, March 30th, vs. late, April 14th). In this one-year study, reducing the standard-tyre inflation pressure from road- (200 kPa) to field-recommended (140 kPa) pressure did not prevent soil compaction. The use of VF tyres at field-recommended (100 kPa) tyre inflation pressure resulted in significant reductions in vertical contact stress and mean normal stress as compared to 200 kPa. Although non-significant, the pressure reduction from 200 kPa to 140 kPa did result in a 4 % increase in in-track dry matter sugar beet yield while a reduction from 200 kPa to 100 kPa resulted in an 11% increase. Lower tyre inflation pressure showed no significant effect on fuel consumption and penetration resistance. Seedbed preparation under slightly drier (0.22 g g−1) soil conditions negatively affected fuel consumption (+11 %) and resulted in an in-track dry matter sugar beet yield increase of 11 %. For both tested prevention strategies, the impact of soil compaction was better observable by sugar beet yield than by most of the measured soil physical parameters.

Tire mode shape categorization using Zernike annular moment and machine learning classification

This research proposes a framework for categorizing the radial tire mode shapes using machine learning (ML) based classification and feature recognition algorithms, advancing the development of a digital twin for tire performance analysis. Tire mode shape categorization is required to identify modal features in a specific frequency range to maximize driving performance and secure safety. However, the mode categorization work requires a lot of manual effort to interpret modes. Therefore, this study suggests an ML-based classification tool to replace the conventional categorization process with two primary objectives: (1) create a database by categorizing the tire mode shapes based on the identified features and (2) develop an ML-based surrogate model to classify the tire mode shapes without manual effort. The feature map of the tire mode shape is built with the Zernike annular moment descriptor (ZAMD). The mode shapes are categorized using the correlation value derived by the modal assurance criteria (MAC) with all ZAMD values for each tire mode shape and subsequently creating the appropriate labels. The decision tree, random forests, and XGBoost, the representative supervised-learning algorithms for classification, are implemented for surrogate model development. The best-performed classifier can categorize the mode shapes without any manual effort with a high accuracy of 99.5%.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE APPLIED TO QUALITY DEFECTS CLASSIFICATION FOR TYRES

The manufacture of radial tires is complex, and for this reason some defects inevitably end up appearing in the production process. Currently the commonly used defect detection is manual detection, among these techniques are ultrasound testing, thermal detection, X-ray detection, digital holography, among others. The X-ray or technical radiography allows the analysis of all the internal components of the tire, such as the bead structure and the different layers of rubber and cords, whether metallic or textile. The task of detecting defects using X-ray images is done manually, which causes loss of time and costs for the company. Furthermore, it is a subjective, inefficient, time-consuming and even biased process as it requires a high level of concentration and focus. The objective of this work is the digitization of the conventional process of analysis of quality failures in metallic radial tires using algorithms developed with Artificial Intelligence resources, capable of identifying and classifying defects present in X-Ray images. This work presents a brief introduction about what the tire is, as well as the development of the proposed algorithm, using classic image segmentation techniques with a Computer Vision library and two different convolutional neural network structures. Through the comparison, it was verified that the algorithm based on U-Net obtained more relevant results, however, the algorithm based on Mask R-CNN was also promising and could be useful in new works, with a larger database and different settings parameters.

An algorithm for estimating the ultimate speed of vehicles on wet roads

Real-time estimation of a vehicle’s ultimate hydroplaning speed is crucial for ensuring its safety and stability, especially in rainy weather conditions. This paper proposes an algorithm for estimating the ultimate hydroplaning speed of vehicles on wet and slippery road surfaces based on finite element analysis of tire. Using the ABAQUS simulation software, a finite element model of a 205/55 R16 radial tire is established. Subsequently, a fluid-structure coupling model between the tire, water layer, and road surface is developed. The finite element method is employed to simulate and analyze the effects of tire inflation pressure, water layer thickness, vertical load, and tread wear on the vehicle’s ultimate hydroplaning speed. Simulation results indicate that an increase in tire inflation pressure and vertical load leads to an increase in the ultimate hydroplaning speed, while tread wear and an increase in water layer thickness result in a decrease. Finally, based on the simulation analysis data, a BP neural network-based estimation algorithm for the vehicle’s ultimate hydroplaning speed is proposed by combining the relationship between tire inflation pressure, tire vertical load, tread wear, water layer thickness, and ultimate hydroplaning speed. The results show that the estimated ultimate hydroplaning velocity profile has a high degree of overlap with the actual ultimate hydroplaning velocity profile, with a maximum error of no more than 5 km/h and an average percentage error of 2.31416%.

Performance Analysis of TBR Tire Curing Process

Numerical algorithms and computer programs have been developed to determine optimal cure steps in a tire curing process. A dynamic constrained optimization problem was formulated with the following ingredients: (1) an objective function that measures product quality in terms of final state of cure and temperature history at selected points in a tire; (2) constraints that consist of a process model and temperature limits imposed on cure media; (3) B-spine representation of a time-varying profile of cure media temperature. The optimization problem was solved using the complex algorithm along with a finite element model solver. Numerical simulations were carried out to demonstrate the procedure of determining optimal cure steps for a truck/bus radial tire. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Apple Polymer Sic 74: 2063–2071, 1999.

Spike Device with Worm Gear Unit for Driving Wheels to Improve the Traction Performance of Compact Tractors on Grass Plots

In general, energy loss reduction via the interaction of tires with the ground improves tractor traction performance when a drawbar pull is generated. This paper is examines the driving wheels with steel spikes for a tractor equipped with modern radial tires. An improved design of the spike device that allows for the change between an active and inactive position of the spikes is presented. The traction performance of a compact articulated tractor with the spike device was tested on a grass plot with two soil moisture contents (SMC). The highest difference in the drawbar pull in the range from 14.2% to 40.5% and from 17.1% to 36.8% was reached by the spikes in the active position in comparison with the tires without spikes, which were at the slip range from 45% to 5% in the case of the low SMC when the test tractor was in the 3rd and 1st gear. The motion resistance difference between the spikes in the active position and the tires without spikes was 11.8% and 2.5% at the low and medium SMC, respectively. At the low and medium SMC, the highest tractive efficiency of 0.765 (0.721) and 0.757 (0.731) was reached by the spikes in the active position when the test tractor was in the 1st (3rd) gear in comparison with 0.736 (0.7) and 0.723 (0.708) in the case of the tires without spikes. The results indicated that the spike device allowed for the improvement of tractor tractive performance.

Numerical and experimental studies on the carcass characteristics of a radial tire

In this research, the carcass characteristics of a radial tire were analyzed by performing numerical simulations on ABAQUS software based on the single factor control variable method, and the feasibility of the proposed numerical model was verified by executing experiments on a tire uniformity testing machine. It was found that when the tire crossed the bump, the preload had positive effects on the internal energies and friction–dissipation fluctuation of the tire, but had little influence on its kinetic energy fluctuation. Tire speed was positively correlated with the fluctuation of kinetic energy, but negatively correlated with the friction–dissipation fluctuation of the tire. In addition, there was a slight correlation between the speed and the internal energy fluctuation of the tire. Moreover, the change in the tire pressure had little influence on the kinetic energy, internal energy, and friction dissipation of the tire.

Tailoring α/β-Brass coating on steel via one-bath co-deposition: Influence of current density and electrolyte composition in pyrophosphate system

Brass electroplating on steel wire is widely employed in the radial tire industry. However, controlling the formation of α/β-brass coating during the co-deposition of Cu-Zn remains challenging. This study investigates the influence of current density, Cu2+/Zn2+ ratio, and pyrophosphate concentration on phase formation using a cyanide-free process. Quantifications of Cu/Zn content and α/β phase ratio in brass coatings were accomplished using EDS and XRD techniques. α-rich brass was favored at moderate current density (5 A/dm2) and an optimal Cu2+/Zn2+ ratio of 1.5:1, while higher currents favored the β-phase regardless of the Cu2+/Zn2+ ratio. An optimal pyrophosphate concentration of 1.0 M yielded α-rich brass, with higher concentrations promoting unalloyed deposits and β-phase formation. α-rich brass coatings exhibited 13–17 % greater adhesion strength to rubber compared to β-rich coatings.

Tire noise prediction based on transfer learning and multi-modal fusion

Vehicle traffic noise has become an important factor in urban noise pollution. With the increase in the number of new-energy vehicles, the current situation of tire/road noise as one of the main noise sources of automobiles is becoming increasingly prominent. Tire noise prediction is the basis for optimizing the design of low-noise tires, providing a reference basis for tire design with low-noise performance. This paper used deep learning methods to predict the noise performance of TBR radial tires. We obtained descriptive statistical features of tire structure and tread pattern images as input to the model, and used measured tire/road noise as output, then we constructed a multi-modal tire noise dataset. Comparing the prediction performance of three pre-trained transfer models such as Resnet18, VGG16, and Inception V3 on the tire pattern images, the Resnet18 had the best prediction effect. Resnet18 was selected as a feature extractor to extract image features, which fuse with the tire structural features at the feature level. The experiment constructed the TLMF-TRNP model to predict tire noise. The experimental results of the TLMF-TRNP model indicated that RMSE, MAE, and R2 were 0.1337, 0.0948, and 0.9864 respectively, achieving ideal prediction accuracy on a small-scale tire noise dataset and controlling the absolute error of the test tires within ±0.4 dB effectively. An accurate tire noise prediction model will provide a theoretical basis for tire design with low noise tires.

Symmetric laminates for enhanced tire durability: A numerical study on belt edge separation

Tire failure due to belt edge separation is a common issue caused by various factors such as adhesion loss, high heat generation, and interlaminar shear. This research paper focuses on studying the phenomenon of belt edge separation in tires by investigating the effect of belt lay arrangement on this failure mode. The study examines two types of belt arrangements, namely Symmetric and Asymmetric, in both four belt and three belt package configurations, using advanced finite element analysis (FEA) techniques. MSC-MARC commercial Finite Element software is employed to conduct FE analysis on an 11R22.5 tire model under steady-state rolling conditions. Through numerical simulations, the study reveals that the symmetric belt arrangement, irrespective of the belt package configuration (four belt or three belt), minimizes strain energy density, principal strains, and principal stresses in the belt edge region compared to the asymmetric arrangement. Interestingly, the asymmetric arrangement is commonly used by tire companies for Truck Bus Radial (TBR) tires. Based on the findings of numerical simulations, this research paper proposes a new three belt package configuration that effectively utilizes the symmetric belt lay arrangement as a potential solution to reduce belt edge separation in TBR tires.

Effects of vertical load and inflation pressure on tire-soil interaction on artificial soil

Instrumented single tire soil bin testing was conducted on a rigid surface and artificial soil by vertically loading a radial tire (LT235/75R15) to two tire vertical loads (6 kN and 8 kN) inflated to three levels of tire inflation pressure (179, 241, and 283 kPa). Lowering the tire inflation pressure by 37 % resulted in 26 % (6 kN vertical load) and 39 % (8 kN vertical load) greater contact lengths (P < 0.05). The 2-D contact area on artificial soil (initial bulk density of 1.51 Mg/m3) was significantly affected (P < 0.05) by tire inflation pressure for each load case. Increasing the load significantly affected the tire’s contact length on soil (P = 0.0010); however, tire inflation pressure did not significantly affect the contact length on soil (P = 0.0609). Soil rut depth and tire-soil deformed volume were not significantly affected by vertical load and tire inflation pressure. Measured tire contact area on soil surface was 3.3 times the contact area on the rigid surface, suggesting tire-soil interaction interface properties on deformable soil are better than using the gross flat plate for evaluating low ground pressure tire technology effects on traction and reducing soil compaction.

Optimal design of radial tire section layout based on thermal fatigue life improving

The design of tire fatigue life was optimized by combining approximate model and finite element simulation, and compared with the tire endurance test results. The design variables are selected through sensitivity analysis of materials in various regions of the tire, and the thermal fatigue life of the tire is used as the objective function, and the approximate relationship between the design variables and the objective function is fitted based on the approximate model method, and the approximate model is optimized using genetic algorithm to find the optimal solution. The fatigue life of the tire is improved by about 25 %.

트럭 버스용 타이어(TBR)에 대한 탄소발자국 산정 및 비교

As the importance of environmental strategy is gaining weight, a number of tire manufacturers are quantifying the environmental aspect of a product in order to reduce the environmental impact of the product and devise an environmental strategy for the product. In this study, the environmental impact of truck bus radial(TBR) tire was quantified using Life Cycle Assessment(LCA) and Carbon footprint which are the two of the main methods for assessing environmental impact.

Experimental and application of waste rubber low‐temperature green regeneration through ultrasound‐assisted method

AbstractCombining a traditional mixer and a custom‐built ultrasonic generator, low‐temperature green regeneration of waste rubber was realized. Through orthogonal experiments, the optimal process parameters for the low‐temperature green regeneration through the ultrasound‐assisted (LTGRTUA) method were explored. Results showed that the self‐developed reclaimed rubber exhibited the best performance under the following conditions: rotor speed of 70 rpm, regeneration temperature of 85°C, ultrasonic power of 700 W, and ultrasonic loading time of 240 s. Additionally, the bond‐breaking types of the reclaimed rubber were evaluated through the measurements of sol fraction and desulfurization rate, as well as by using the Horikx curve. The self‐developed reclaimed rubber showed better retention of the main chain structure of waste rubber compared to the commercially reclaimed rubber which was prepared by the traditional vulcanization tank high‐temperature regeneration (TVTHTR) method. Moreover, blending experiments were conducted, in which different proportions of the reclaimed rubber replaced natural rubber (NR) for the purpose of producing tread rubber for radial tires. Performance tests of the final products revealed that the self‐developed reclaimed rubber performed better than commercially reclaimed rubber, which provides an effective basis for the subsequent industrial application and promotion.Highlights Low‐temperature green regeneration of waste rubber was realized by the LTGRTUA method. The main chain structure of waste rubber is well preserved by the LTGRTUA method. The self‐developed reclaimed rubber has better properties and industrial application prospects.

Vibration analysis of radial tire using the 3D rotating hyperelastic composite REF based on ANCF

In order to analyze the influence of tread structure and rotating angular speed on the vibration characteristics of radial tire, a 3D rotating hyperelastic composite REF (3D-RHCREF) model is proposed. Different form uniform cylindrical tread in other REF models, the tread is simplified as a hyperelastic composite revolving shell, whose discretization and parameterization are achieved by using three-order segmented Bézier curve and complete-gradient ANCF space curved trapezoid element. In the proposed 3D-RHCREF, the generalized inertial force with the centrifugal force and Coriolis force are obtained by introducing a rotation matrix into the framework of ANCF. Based on Kirchhoff-Love theory and hyperelastic constitutive relation, the generalized hyperelastic force of composite tread is derived and the compensation of initial generalized hyperelastic force is proposed. According to the D'Alembert principle, the nonlinear dynamic differential equations are established, then the modal equations are derived on the basis of the equilibrium position. By comparing with the FEM model of radial tire, the validity of the proposed model and calculation method is verified. The 3D-RHCREF is used to analyze the influences of internal pressure, tread pressure sharing ratio, belt structure and rotating angle speed on the vibration characteristics of radial tire. The vibration frequency will increase with the increase of internal pressure and the decrease of tread pressure sharing ratio; different belt structures of tread will cause changes in vibration frequency; the radial vibration frequency will be split into two traveling wave frequencies in two directions with the increase of rotating angular speed, and the circumferential/lateral vibration frequencies will almost only increase slightly with the increase of rotating angular speed.

Study on the Effect of Different Design Parameters of Sidewall Insert Rubber on the Mechanical Characteristics of Self-Supporting Run-Flat Tires

Self-supporting run-flat tires (SSRFTs) achieve good zero-pressure driving ability by reinforcing the sidewalls, and the structural shape of sidewall insert rubber (SIR) is critical in influencing the mechanical characteristics of SSRFTs. In this paper, an SSRFT contour model is established by combining the radial tire contour theory and the design elements of SIR. The influence of two design parameters (maximum width L and maximum thickness H) of SIR on the tire stiffness characteristics and the contact characteristics is analyzed in depth, and the accuracy of the model is verified by the tire mechanics bench test. The results show that the radial stiffness of SSRFTs is positively correlated with two design parameters; an increase in L affects the stress concentration at the end of SIR, while a change in H has a more drastic effect on the stress distribution of SIR, leading to a large change in both the location of the deformation of SIR and the maximum equivalent stress; under rated pressure conditions, when L is less than 100 mm, the overlap between SIR and the tread decreases, which in turn makes the contact characteristics of SSRFTs closer to that of a normal tire, and obtains better comfort and abrasion resistance; under zero-pressure conditions, the maximum contact stress of the tread is the smallest when the H is 8 mm, but when H is less than 6 mm, the contact characteristics appear to deteriorate uniformly, and the maximum contact stress continues to rise. The results of the research provide a reference value for the selection of the design parameters for SIR and the optimization of the dynamic performance of SSRFTs.

Modelling Intrinsic Sources of Nonuniformity and Their Interplay

ABSTRACT Uniformity characteristics of a tire are a direct reflection of the quality of the manufacturing process that produced it. This is realized in the homogeneity of its different stiffnesses and dimensions around the tire. Evidently, this is the most closely monitored aspect for consistency, from the original equipment manufacturers and manufacturers alike, and the requirement for tighter acceptance criteria is ever-increasing. However, the authors endeavor to find the lowest theoretical level for the same, given the intrinsic sources. The current study attempts to establish a framework to investigate the effect of the most pronounced factors individually, their interplay, and how their combined effect can be minimized. The present work on a 185/65R15 passenger car radial tire attempts to determine the effect of variable pitch sequencing as well as splicing and tread runout for a patterned tire on radial force variation (RFV). The study is carried out using finite element simulation for it presents the opportunity to study the individual effects systemically and economically. The study reveals a nearly 20% of the specification limit can be due to tread pattern sequence while the effect of the overlapping components may vary by 10% of the same limit. The study also suggests spotting arrangements to target and avoid. Finally, the authors present a method, captured in a MATLAB program that benefits the tire designer, plant engineer, and quality control manager.

Validation of an electro-hydraulic press for dynamic measurement of elastic deformations in agricultural tires

Tests with agricultural tires and wheelsets allow for mitigating the machinery traffic limitations to crop productivity, as it shows the tire-surface interaction under different suitability conditions, optimizing farming processes with the use of technology. Thus, this paper aims to develop an electro-hydraulic press for dynamically measuring elastic deformations occurring in agricultural tires. The experiment used a completely randomized design, evaluating two pneumatic wheelsets, bias-ply and radial, and six vertical loads, 4.9033, 9.8066, 14.71, 19.6133, 24.5166, and 29.4199 kN, on the tire, totalizing 12 treatments with five repetitions. The analyzed parameters are contact area, horizontal and vertical deflection. The collected data underwent an analysis of variance F-test and a polynomial regression analysis. The results showed continuous replicability of the data obtained with the electro-hydraulic press. That demonstrates the efficiency of the developed device for evaluating agricultural tires in a controlled environment. The bias-ply tire presented a smaller contact area than the radial with the increase of incident loads, and the 14.71 kN load achieved a higher amplitude, generating a difference of 40 %. The maximum load resulted in 27 % more horizontal deflections for the radial tire. However, the vertical deflection values were 8 % higher with the bias-ply tires.