Racial Scale Research Articles

<p>Epistemologies of Ignorance: Revisiting the Marley Hypothesis and the Role of Collective Self-Esteem and Social Dominance Theory</p>

Background: In studies on racial differences in the perception of racism, it has been shown that these differences are mediated by the degree of historical knowledge about racism. The validity of this hypothesis is evaluated in the context of the states of Oregon and Washington. In the present study, we propose as the main objective to contrast the Marley hypothesis based on its previous empirical evaluation, as it has been substantiated, and incorporating the analysis of the construct of social dominance orientation (SDO). Methodology: Using convenience sampling, 79 White Americans (M = 35.75, SD = 16.45) and 58 Black Americans (M = 30.93, SD = 10.27) were selected. Four measures were used: a historical knowledge quiz, the Collective Self-Esteem Scale, a perception of racism scale and the SDO-7 Short Scale. Results: The expected racial differences in the perception of racism were not found. However, White participants presented less historical knowledge. Furthermore, greater historical knowledge predicted SDO only for Black participants. It has been proven that the degree of racial identification moderates the effect of race status on perceptions of racism. Discussion and Conclusion: The defense of a “non-racist” self-image by white participants is closely linked to how they report their perceptions of racism. It is noted that, even though the two groups presented equal levels in this variable, the scores could be due to different underlying processes, hence the results are compatible with the notion that the two groups understand racism in different ways. The data suggests that in this region, the perception and understanding of racism are influenced by sociocultural factors that were not as relevant in previous studies.

SPECIAL ISSUE: The Effect of Perceived Racial Discrimination in African Americans on HRV

Health disparities among African Americans have been reported for decades. This is especially true for cardiovascular disease (CVD) even when compared with other minority groups in America. Such disparities have been tied to perceived discrimination. A previous study found that perceived racism accounted for a substantial percentage of the variance in resting heart rate variability (HRV), an independent biomarker of cardiac health. The present study attempts to replicate such findings. This study includes 57 healthy African American individuals who met inclusion criteria. Participants were given the Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire–Community Version (PEDQ-CV) and the Perceived Racism Scale (PRS) and had their resting HRV and blood pressure measured. After accounting for breathing rate and age, the lifetime score on the PRS uniquely accounted for up to 45% of the variability of HRV metrics. The PEDQ-CV was not found to be a statistically significant predictor of HRV. Within this sample, blood pressure was not significantly predicted by either scale. The findings suggest that lifetime perceived racism may directly affect HRV indices, which may indicate an increased risk for CVD. Further research should continue to investigate this association and potential avenues for related intervention.

Camouflaged prejudice and the affirmation of skin colour differences: assessment of racism among Brazilian undergraduate dental students.

The negative oral health outcomes of disadvantaged racial groups have been well-documented, as racial disparity in oral health persists over time and in different locations1. However, it is important to note that skin colour has no biological meaning, and the observed differences can be physiological expressions of social injustice such as racism. Aim: The aim of this study was to analyse the association between levels of modern racism (camouflaged prejudice and affirmation of differences) and sociodemographic characteristics of Brazilian dental students. Material and Method: An epidemiological cross-sectional online survey was conducted on 441 Brazilian undergraduate dental students using Google Forms. Participants were recruited via emails and social media, using the snowball technique. The Checklist for Reporting of Survey Studies (CROSS) was followed. The survey used sociodemographic variables, and the Brazilian version of the Modern Racism Scale (B-MRS), which measures the cognitive component of subtle racial attitudes. The scale assesses the central notion of disguised prejudice and has two domains: 'denial of prejudice' and 'affirmation of differences'. Participants' self-declared skin colour was categorized as "white" and "non-white" (black, brown, indigenous, yellow). Univariate analysis and Poisson regression with robust variance were applied. Results: Participants' mean age was 24.1 years (±5.4). Most participants were self-declared as white (54%) and 46% as non-white skin colour. Higher B-MRS overall-scores were observed in male (p=0.008) and non-white (p=0.002) students. B-MRS scores for the domain 'affirmation of differences' (representation of those who believe that whites and non-whites are truly different) were higher among male dental students (PR=1.138; CI 95%: 1.019-1.271) and those from low-income families (PR=1.306; CI 95%: 1.089-1.565). Scores for the domain 'denial of prejudice' (the idea that non-whites use their race to receive legal benefits) were higher among male dental students (PR=1.328; CI 95%: 1.129-1.562). Conclusions: In general, male non-white students had higher modern racism indicators. Male students from low-income families believed that whites and non-whites are truly different, accounting for the affirmation of difference in this sample.

Intergenerational effects of racism on amygdala and hippocampus resting state functional connectivity

Racism is an insidious problem with far-reaching effects on the lives of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC). The pervasive negative impact of racism on mental health is well documented. However, less is known about the potential downstream impacts of maternal experiences of racism on offspring neurodevelopment. This study sought to examine evidence for a biological pathway of intergenerational transmission of racism-related trauma. This study examined the effects of self-reported maternal experiences of racism on resting state functional connectivity (rsFC) in n = 25 neonates (13 female, 12 male) birthed by BIPOC mothers. Amygdala and hippocampus are brain regions involved in fear, memory, and anxiety, and are central nodes in brain networks associated with trauma-related change. We used average scores on the Experiences of Racism Scale as a continuous, voxel-wise regressor in seed-based, whole-brain connectivity analysis of anatomically defined amygdala and hippocampus seed regions of interest. All analyses controlled for infant sex and gestational age at the 2-week scanning session. More maternal racism-related experiences were associated with (1) stronger right amygdala rsFC with visual cortex and thalamus; and (2) stronger hippocampus rsFC with visual cortex and a temporo-parietal network, in neonates. The results of this research have implications for understanding how maternal experiences of racism may alter neurodevelopment, and for related social policy.

It’s possible to measure racism! Analysis of measures and scales of the racism construct

Purpose: This research aims to analyze the construction and validation of measures and scales of the racism construct through a systematic literature review. The purpose is to examine how these instruments are built based on statistical recommendations for scale development.Methodology: A systematic literature review followed well-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Data were collected from databases available on the Portal de Periódicos Capes, covering a period up to December 2023 (with no start date limitation). After removing duplicate articles and applying the defined filters, six studies were selected for the analysis of scale construction.Findings: Three specific scales were identified to measure and evaluate the racism construct: the Modern Racism Scale, the Symbolic Racism Scale, and the Ethno-Racial Attitudes Scale. Although there is a predominance of studies on the Modern Racism Scale, other instruments were excluded from the analysis corpus due to non-compliance with inclusion criteria, especially related to article availability.Originality: Among the 82 analyzed articles, those focused on measures and scales of the racism construct do not provide an analysis of the development of these instruments. This study brings to light an analysis of the construction and validation of these measures and scales.

Older adults’ perceptions of ageism, discrimination, and racism

ABSTRACT Older adults often experience different forms of discrimination, whether it be on the basis of their age, gender, race, or ethnicity (Rochon et al. 2021). Many older adults have stated they have experienced the health care system differently because of their race or ethnicity . Understanding older adults’ experiences and their perceptions of ageism and racism can guide future work. This observational cross-sectional study captured community-dwelling older adults’ perceptions about their experiences with ageism and racism. A few opened-ended questions were included in the cross-sectional survey. While results did not yield differences with respect to perceptions of ageism by race; there were statistically significant results in regard to perceived racism, with higher scores on the racism scales for individuals who self-identified as Black. Discussion and implications for practice, policy and research are explored.

Online xenophobia and mental health among Venezuelan migrant youth in Colombia: The interplay with "in-person" discrimination.

Emerging research provides insights into migration-related cultural stress experiences and mental health among Venezuelan migrants; however, prior studies have not considered the critical distinction between online xenophobia and in-person discrimination. To address this gap, we assess the psychometric properties of an abbreviated version of the Perceived Online Racism Scale (PORS) with Venezuelan migrant youth and examine the interplay between online xenophobia, in-person discrimination, and mental health. Survey data were collected from Venezuelan migrant youth (N = 319; ages 13-17, 49.5% female) in Colombia in April-July 2023. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the PORS, and multiple regression was conducted to examine key associations. The CFA showed excellent model fit: χ²(7) = 13.498, p = .061; comparative fit index = .989; Tucker-Lewis index = .977; root-mean-square error of approximation = .055; standardized root-mean-square residual = .026. Controlling for demographic factors, online xenophobia was associated with depressive symptoms (β = .253, p < .001) and anxiety (β = .200, p = .001). The online xenophobia-mental health association weakened when controlling for in-person discrimination but remained nevertheless significant (depression: β = .181, p = .002, anxiety: β = .135, p = .026). Interaction effects (Online × In-Person) revealed a pattern in which greater exposure to online xenophobia was associated with greater distress, but only at relatively low levels of in-person discrimination. Findings provide new insights regarding (a) the properties of an increasingly relevant measure of cultural stress, (b) how online xenophobia relates to mental health, and (c) the interplay of online and in-person cultural stressors vis-à-vis mental health among Venezuelan migrant youth. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Abstract P357: Health Behaviors in Early Pregnancy Are Associated With Mid-Pregnancy Biomarkers of Placental Health and Function

Introduction: Placental blood biomarkers are dysregulated in adverse pregnancy outcomes (APO). While health behaviors are associated with APO risk, it is not well-characterized whether health behaviors impact placental blood biomarkers. Thus, we examined the associations between health behaviors and placental biomarkers of angiogenesis in mid-pregnancy. Hypothesis: Pregnant people engaging in healthier behaviors in the 1 st trimester would demonstrate more favorable 2 nd trimester concentrations of placental biomarkers. Methods: Data from 2,078 participants with available analytes from the Nulliparous Pregnancy Outcomes Study: Monitoring Mothers-to-be were included, representing an enriched sample of APO (preterm birth, preeclampsia/eclampsia, small-for-gestational age, or stillbirth; n=1,284) and 12% of those without these diagnoses (n=794). Health behaviors of physical activity, sleep, smoking, and diet assessed in the 1 st trimester were scored from 0-100 according to the Life’s Essential 8 algorithm; a higher score is more favorable. Biomarkers assayed included total endoglin, pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A), vascular endothelial growth factor, placental growth factor, and soluble FMS-like tyrosine 1. The association between health behaviors and each biomarker was examined using linear (continuous) or logistic (odds of concentration below multiple of the median [MoM] cut point) regression adjusted for demographics, BMI, resilience (Connor-Davidson Scale), and perceived discrimination (Krieger Racism Scale) using a backwards stepwise approach; analyses were repeated stratified by APO status. Bonferroni-corrected significance was p&lt;0.001. Results: The overall APO rate in this enriched sample was 62%; this was significantly lower in those with ≥150 min/week compared with no physical activity (58% vs 66%, p=0.04). Lower (worse) smoking score was associated with lower (adverse) PAPP-A concentration in those who developed APO (p&lt;0.001). Higher physical activity score (healthier) was associated with lower PAPP-A concentration (adverse) regardless of APO occurrence; for every 10-point higher physical activity score, odds of PAPP-A &lt; 0.3 MoM increased 10% (OR 1.10; 95% CI 1.05, 1.16). No associations were observed between the other health behaviors and biomarkers. Conclusions: Higher levels of physical activity were associated with lower APO occurrence. In contrast, PAPP-A concentrations were lower in those with higher physical activity regardless of pregnancy outcome. Lower 2 nd trimester PAPP-A was observed in those with higher smoking exposure who developed APO. Our findings support prior work demonstrating lower risk of APO with more physical activity in pregnancy, but also indicate that PAPP-A concentrations may be sensitive to physical activity and smoking. Further work to elucidate the mechanisms of these associations is warranted.

Initial Development and Validation of the Brief Internalized Heterosexist Racism Scale for Gay and Bisexual Black Men: A Measure of Internalized Heterosexist Racism.

We introduce internalized heterosexist racism (IHR), or the internalization of damaging stereotypes, harmful beliefs, and negative attitudes about being a sexual minority person of color. We also present the initial development and validation of the Brief Internalized Heterosexist Racism Scale for gay and bisexual Black men (IHR-GBBM), a unidimensional, 10-item measure of IHR. Exploratory factor analyses on an internet-obtained sample of gay and bisexual Black men (N = 312; Mean age = 30.36 years) show that the IHR-GBBM had evidence of good internal consistency, and good convergent, discriminant, concurrent, and incremental validity. The IHR-GBBM was positively correlated with internalized racism, internalized heterosexism, and discrimination (racist, heterosexist). IHR was also negatively correlated with race stigma consciousness, weakly positively correlated with sexual identity stigma consciousness, but not correlated with either race identity, sexual identity, or social desirability. Hierarchical regressions showed that the IHR-GBBM explained an additional variance of 2.8% and 3.1% in anxiety symptoms and substance use coping, respectively, after accounting for (1) sociodemographics, (2) internalized racism and internalized heterosexism, and (3) an interaction of internalized racism and internalized heterosexism. Older participants and those who were "out" about their sexual identity reported lower IHR. Those who did not know/want to report their HIV status reported greater IHR. Results revealed no sexual identity, sexual position, relationship status, income, education, or employment status differences in IHR. We hope the development of the IHR-GBBM spurs future research on predictors and consequences of IHR. We discuss limitations and implications for the future study of internalized heterosexist racism.

States' racial resentment correlates with administrative distancing and lower rates of health plan selection in affordable care act marketplaces: a cross sectional analysis.

In the United States, the Affordable Care Act (ACA) pursued equity in healthcare access and treatment, but ACA implementation varied, especially limiting African Americans' gains. Marketplaces for subsidized purchase of coverage were sometimes implemented with limited outreach and enrollment assistance efforts. Reflecting state's ACA receptivity or reluctance, state's implementation may rest on sociopolitical stances and racial sentiments. Some states were unwilling to provide publicly supported healthcare to nonelderly, non-disabled adults- "the undeserving poor" -who evoke anti-black stereotypes. The present study assessed whether some states shunned Affordable Care Act (ACA) marketplaces and implemented them less vigorously than other states, leading to fewer eligible persons selecting insurance plans. It assessed if states' actions were motivated by racial resentment, because states connote marketplaces to be government assistance for unworthy African Americans. Using marketplace and plan selection data from 2015, we rated states' marketplace structures along a four-level continuum indicating greater acceptance of marketplaces, ranging from states assuming sole responsibility to minimal responsibility. Using national data from a four-question modern racism scale, state-wide racial resentment estimates were estimated at the state level. Analysis assessed associations between state levels of racial resentment with states' marketplace structure. Further analysis assessed relationships between both state levels of racial resentment and states' marketplace structure with states' consumer plan selection rates-representing the proportion of persons eligible to enroll in insurance plans who selected a plan. Racial resentment was greater in states with less responsibility for the administration of the marketplaces than actively participating states. States higher in racial resentment also showed lower rates of plan selection, pointing to less commitment to implementing marketplace provisions and fulfilling the ACA's coverage-improvement mission. Differences persisted after controlling for differences in conservatism, uninsurance, poor health, and rejection of Medicaid expansion. Resentment of African Americans' purported irresponsibility and entitlement to government assistance may interfere with states structuring and operating marketplaces to maximize health insurance opportunities for everyone available under the ACA. N/A.

The Symbolic Racism Scale and the Modern Sexism Scale: Testing measurement invariance in diverse samples.

The present study examined the measurement invariance of the Symbolic Racism Scale (SRS) and the Modern Sexism Scale (MSS) across racial/ethnic and gender groups. Previous psychometric evaluations of the SRS and MSS scores have not examined the equivalence across racial/ethnic and gender groups or have been otherwise statistically inadequate. Therefore, this study sought to fill this gap. To establish measurement equivalence across racial/ethnic (Black, Latinx, and white) and gender (women and men) groups, we conducted a measurement invariance analysis of the SRS and the MSS in a large, diverse sample (N = 719). We found that the SRS and MSS were invariant across gender, and the SRS was invariant across racial/ethnic groups. However, the MSS was noninvariant across racial/ethnic groups. Partial invariance testing revealed nonequivalent factor loadings between Black and Latinx participants compared to white participants on an item of the MSS that referenced "unwarranted" attention that women receive from the government and media. Researchers should consider reevaluating the item that reads: "Over the past few years, the government and news media have been showing more concern about the treatment of women than is warranted by women's actual experiences." Future research is needed to assess how the item is interpreted by Black and Latinx people so it can be modified for use in these communities. Our findings underscore the importance of assessing the validity of the scores in commonly used scales across diverse groups. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Supplemental Material for The Symbolic Racism Scale and the Modern Sexism Scale: Testing Measurement Invariance in Diverse Samples

Supplemental Material for The Symbolic Racism Scale and the Modern Sexism Scale: Testing Measurement Invariance in Diverse Samples

An Unfinished Chapter: The Impact of Belgians&amp;rsquo; Social Representations of Colonialism on their Present-Day Attitudes Towards Congolese People Living in Belgium

Various national and international political associations have claimed that present-day racism towards people of African descent living in formerly colonizing European countries is caused by these countries’ colonial past and their governments’ failure to adequately address this historical legacy. However, no empirical study has yet examined the relation between social representations of colonialism (SRC) and attitudes towards Afro-descendants among majority group members. To investigate this phenomenon, we carried out two cross-sectional studies, which both confirmed that SRC are associated with attitudes towards the Congolese and with support for compensations. Study 1 (N = 407) investigated, among Belgian participants, the association of the two dimensions of SRC – Exploitation and Development – with present-day intergroup attitudes and support for compensations (material and symbolic) for colonialism. Representing the colonial past in terms of Exploitation was associated with more positive attitudes and more intentions to compensate for colonialism, whereas representing it in terms of Development had the opposite effect. Some of these effects were moderated by national identification. Study 2 (N = 203) used the same design but also included a modern racism scale. Results of Study 1 were generally replicated, and effects of SRC on modern racism were obtained: SRC in terms of Exploitation was associated with less modern racism, and SRC in terms of Development was associated with more modern racism. Results are discussed in terms of post-colonial intergroup relations.

Impact of online and offline racism on cigarette smoking, marijuana use, and vaping via depressive/anxiety symptoms among racially minoritized emerging adults.

Studies have found that offline and online racism are linked to mental health issues including depressive and anxiety symptoms among racially minoritized emerging adults. To cope with these symptoms, racially minoritized emerging adults may resort to substance use. Thus, we examined the relationship between offline and online racism and recent smoking behaviors (past 30 days), and whether depressive and anxiety symptoms (DAS) mediate this relationship. We hypothesized that offline and online racism would be associated with a greater probability of recent smoking through depressive/anxiety symptoms. With data from 338 participants (Mage = 23.28, SD = 2.38), we conducted a path analysis of offline racism (Everyday Discrimination Scale) and online racism (Perceived Online Racism Scale) predicting recent smoking (recent cigarette smoking, recent marijuana use, recent vaping) via depressive (Patient Health Questionnaire-9)/anxiety (Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7) symptoms. Offline racism was directly associated with recent cigarette smoking while online racism was directly associated with recent vaping. No significant indirect associations were observed with cigarette smoking and vaping. Both online and offline racism were indirectly associated with recent marijuana use via depressive/anxiety symptoms. Our findings suggest that there are nuanced differences between the impact that online and offline racism experiences may have on the DAS, and smoking behaviors of racially minoritized emerging adults. Implications for research are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Shifting mediates gendered racial microaggressions and perceived racism among Asian American women.

Microaggressive attacks on Asian American women increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. The present study tested whether Asian American women's shifting, a coping strategy employed by some women of color to alter their self-presentation in response to perceived racism, mediated the association between gendered racial microaggressions and self-perceived subtle and blatant racism. A convenience sample of 253 Asian American adult women completed the gendered racial microaggressions scale for Asian American women (GRMSAAW), the Asian American women's shifting scale (AsAWSS), and the subtle and blatant racism scale for Asian American college students (SABR-A2 ). Results from a structural equation model indicated a partial mediation effect; experiences with increased gendered racial microaggressions were associated with greater levels of shifting, which in turn, were associated with greater perceived subtle and blatant racism. These data extend our understanding of the shifting coping mechanism used by some Asian American women. Implications for clinical practice and future research are also discussed.

The (racial) implications of “special favors”

In this short manuscript, I explore the predictive validity of a common component of racial resentment—(dis)agreement with the idea that minority racial groups need special favors to get ahead. Specifically, this analysis takes advantage of different “special favors” questions included in the Cooperative Congressional Election Studies (CCES) 2012-2014 Panel Study to assess whether affirmative action preferences are uniquely racialized. I find that (1) respondents react differently to the special favors instrument on the basis of the racial group in question, (2) these assessments vary among liberals and conservatives, and (3) they predict racialized outcomes stereotypically associated with a given racial group. These findings dovetail with recent work that illustrates an ideological sorting of such measures, while offering modest evidence that a prominent instrument used in symbolic racism scales is, in fact, race-coded to specific target groups.

Effects of Perspective Taking and Values Consistency in Reducing Implicit Racial Bias

The current study explored the effect of perspective taking and values consistency tasks on reducing implicit racial bias. Using a repeated measures design with a control group, 39 participants, 20 female and 19 males aged from 18-54 years, who identified as White were administered the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure. All participants in the experimental group (n = 19) and control group (n = 20) completed the Toronto Empathy Questionnaire, Modified Modern Racism Scale, Valuing Questionnaire, and a Likert scale. Experimental group participants completed brief values consistency and perspective taking tasks, whereas the control group completed a guided task. A 2 x 4 mixed repeated-measures analysis of variance was conducted to determine if there was interaction effect between group and trial types and a MANOVA to identify differences in the explicit measures between both groups. Results showed that after the values work and perspective taking exercises, participants in the experimental group recorded shorter mean responses for Inconsistent-Black trial blocks versus Consistent-Black trial blocks compared to the control group. Additionally, a statistically significant impact for interaction between condition and trial type was found for the Consistent-White trial type in the experimental group. Recommendations for future research are presented.

Twilight of Rationality

Twilight of Rationality

Race and resource allocation: an online survey of US and UK adults’ attitudes toward COVID-19 ventilator and vaccine distribution

ObjectiveThis study aimed to assess US/UK adults’ attitudes towards COVID-19 ventilator and vaccine allocation.DesignOnline survey including US and UK adults, sampled to be representative for sex, age, race, household income...

Abstract P331: Racism Associated With Blood Pressure Risk For Renal Injury In African American Males

Young hypertensive African American (AA) males have approximately a 10-fold greater risk for end-stage renal disease compared to white males. The reason for this disparity remains elusive, but environmental stress has been identified as a contributor to disease risk among Blacks. Male (n=80) and female (n=91) AAs were administered the perceived racism scale (PRS) to investigate the association of perceived racism with systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP/DBP, respectively) and urinary albumin/creatinine ratio (UAC). Resting SBP and DBP were measured and urine was collected for measuring albumin to creatinine ratio (UAC, index of renal injury). There were no sex differences in age (36 ± 2 vs 33 ± 2 yrs), SBP (127± 13 vs 124 ± 2 mmHg), and DBP (72 ± 1 vs 69 ± 1 mmHg), but males had higher UAC (28 ± 12 vs 21 ± 4 mg/g; p&lt;0.003; males vs females, respectively). Workplace PRS scores were higher in males compared to females (20 ± 2 vs 14 ± 1, p&lt;0.01 male vs female, respectively). PRS in the workplace was positively correlated with SBP (r=0.530, p=0.002) and DBP (r=0.447, p=0.002) in males but not females (r=-0.01, p=NS; r=0.01, p=NS, respectively). Moreover, SBP (r=0.399, p=0.024) and DBP (r=0.612, p=0.0002) were positively correlated with UAC in males but not in females (r=0.387, p=NS; r=0.207, p=NS, respectively). Our findings show that racism in the workplace is strongly associated with a biomarker of kidney injury in AA males. Furthermore, our findings support the idea that racism may be the driver of the greater risk of kidney disease in young hypertensive males. Thus, we conclude that increased risk for kidney injury in young hypertensive AA males is due to the environmental stress of racism that leads to activation of biological pathways causing cardiovascular and kidney diseases. More studies are needed to identify the underlying pathways between perception of racism and cardiometabolic and kidney diseases.