Racial Stress Research Articles

A Phenomenological Variant Ecological Systems Theory Approach for Exploring Racial Stress, and Campus Engagement Among Black Male College Students

Studies show that a nexus exists between racialized campus experiences, racial-ethnic identity, and engagement in campus activities for Black college men and shapes their perceptions about an institution's commitment to support the communities they represent. Yet, there is limited knowledge about how this nexus may unfold ecologically for this student population during their undergraduate experience. Using the Phenomenological Variant Ecological System Theory, this qualitative study describes how 31 Black college males leveraged their identities to manage self and societal appraisals, cope with stress experienced in university programs, and navigate feelings of marginalization and sense of belonging during their undergraduate experience.

Group-Delivered Trauma-Focused CBT Integrating Racial Socialization: A Multiple Case Study

In addition to disparities in interpersonal trauma exposures, Black youth in the U.S. experience the compounding stress of racial trauma, both of which are associated with a disproportionate mental health burden. Black youth also face barriers to engaging with trauma-specific therapies to address trauma-related mental health problems, with research suggesting that they are less likely to complete trauma-specific treatment. Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) is an evidence-based therapy for trauma-related mental health problems in youth ages 3 to 18. Metzger and colleagues (2021) proposed a set of cultural considerations for Black families to address racial stressors and enhance engagement in TF-CBT. The aim of the current multiple case study was to demonstrate the utility of group-delivered TF-CBT integrating these considerations for a single telehealth group of Black adolescents and their caregivers. We describe the intervention, patient engagement and clinical outcomes, and feedback from families regarding their experience with the group model. We also outline clinical and implementation challenges and highlight directions for future research and clinical practice.

Racial Stress and Black Women’s Health in the United States: A Culturally Responsive Prevention and Health Promotion Intervention

Black babies and their mothers are dying at disproportionately high rates. Also, Black women are experiencing higher rates of racial discrimination than other racial-ethnic groups are facing in the United States. An intervention promoting the health of Black women and their unborn babies requires addressing the disproportionate level of racial stress that Black women experience. In this article, the creation of such a program is discussed. To consider individual, community, and systemic factors, three theoretical models were utilized: (a) Race-based traumatic stress injury, (b) stress-health model, and (c) racial identity model. This intervention was co-developed with community stakeholders by using community-based participatory research principles. This process resulted in the development of the Afya Black Women Wellness program, a multidimensional and strength-based intervention grounded in the experiences of Black women. Afya focuses on promoting holistic health through psychoeducation, skills building, and social support. The program is constructed to be implemented twice-a-week for 12 weeks. This will allow pregnant Black women to receive the maximum benefit from the program, improving the quality of life for themselves and their unborn children. Ameliorating health disparities in Black maternal health requires addressing the disproportionate amount of racial stress that Black women experience. Afya is a model intervention that provides practical strategies for addressing racial health inequities in Black maternal health. It does so by promoting the health of Black women at the individual and community levels.

Chemical and non-chemical stressors in a postpartum cohort through wristband and self report data: Links between increased chemical burden, economic, and racial stress

Multiple external stressors are known to have adverse impacts on health and development. Certain groups are more vulnerable and/or more likely to be exposed toenvironmental, psychological, and social stressors simultaneously. Yet, few studies have examined combined exposure to environmental toxicants and psychosocial stress. Here, we integrated environmental chemical exposure data collected using silicone wristbands and self-report social stressor data within the Brain and Early Experience (BEE) perinatal cohort to understand co-exposure to environmental chemicals and social stress. Silicone wristbands were worn for one week by mothers throughout central North Carolina who were 6 months postpartum (n = 97). Exposure to 110 environmental chemicals across eight chemical classes was quantified on silicone wristbands using gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Social stress was evaluated using eight established self-report questionnaires (e.g., Brief Symptom Inventory, Perceived Stress Scale), quantifying experiences such as race-related stress, economic strain, and relationship conflict. Hair cortisol levels were measured as an additional metric of stress. The chemical exposure landscape and associations among chemical exposure, demographic characteristics, and social stress were characterized through individual variable analyses, cluster and data reduction, and compiled scoring approaches to comprehensively evaluate chemical and social stress burdens. We found that chemicals contain co-occurring patterns largely based on chemical class, with phthalates representing the chemical class with highest exposure and polychlorinated biphenyls the lowest. Chemicals showed differential exposure across racial groups, with diethyl phthalate, triphenyl phosphate, and tris(3,5-dimethyl phenyl) phosphate at higher levels in Black participants compared with White participants. Integrating social stressor profiling with chemical exposure data identified one particularly vulnerable subset of participants in which high chemical exposure burden coincided with high experiences of racism and economic stress. These findings demonstrate co-occurring chemical and social stress, warranting further investigation to better understand how these combined stressors may contribute to disparities in maternal and child health.

Using RECAST theory to examine racial stress appraisal across high schools: Differences in racial threat and support

Data from 318 diverse high school students from three different types of high schools in the United States were collected. School types varied by location (e.g., suburban, urban), size, and student demographics (e.g., race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status). Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to examine the factor structure of the STRESS-Y. Mean comparisons were performed to assess variations in Racial Stress Appraisal across different school types. The EFA of the STRESS-Y confirmed its factor structure, supporting its validity as a measure of RSA in youth and we were able to extract two robust factors—Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal. Mean comparisons revealed that Racial Threat Appraisal and Racial Support Appraisal varied across different school types, highlighting the influence of school context on students' experiences of racial stress. This study provides evidence for the validity of the STRESS-Y as a measure of Racial Stress Appraisal in youth. The findings demonstrate the importance of considering school type as a factor influencing students' experiences of racial stress as well as how support, racial coping, and stress management skills may help mitigate ongoing interpersonal harm that youth are experiencing. The validated measure and the understanding of the factors contributing to Racial Stress Appraisal can inform interventions aimed at supporting students in managing and coping with racial stressors in their respective school environments.

Strength-based strategies for addressing racial stressors in African American families: lessons learned from developing the LEADS health promotion intervention

Recognizing the real-life impact of racial stress on physical and psychological health is vital for creating impactful health promotion interventions among African American families. Despite the known link between racial stress and poor physical health outcomes, no existing intervention to date has targeted stress management strategies to buffer racial stress and build positive health behaviors among African American families. The current study outlines the lessons learned throughout the development of the Linking Exercise for Advancing Daily Stress (LEADS) Management and Resilience program, a 10-week family-based health promotion, stress management, and resilience intervention that aimed to improve physical activity, healthy eating, and well-being among African American adolescents and parents. We highlight the evolution of the LEADS intervention from a health promotion and stress management intervention to a culturally salient health promotion, stress management, and resilience intervention utilizing community-based participatory research strategies. This paper chronicles our systematic journey in making those changes and the lessons we learned along the way. We provide specific recommendations and implications for future health promotion interventions developed for African American families. Overall, we argue for a research orientation that respects cultural and racial contexts, embraces diversity within research teams and self-reflection, recognizes the heterogeneity among African American populations, and applies strength-based approaches.

Relation of Family Economic Pressure and Racial Stress with Sleep Disturbance among African American College Students: Moderating Effects of Kin Social Support

The investigation examined whether kin social support moderated the association of family economic pressure and race-related stress with sleep disturbance among African American college students. The study is grounded in two theoretical models including the Integrative Model for the Study of Developmental Competence in Minority Children (IM) and the Family Stress Model (FSM), which predict that economic and race-related stress are linked to well-being in families and that the effects of stressful experiences may be moderated by kin social support. Hypotheses were assessed with online questionnaires administered to 152 African American college students (83% female, Mage = 21.7, SDage = 4.6). Economic pressure and race-related stress were significantly associated with sleep disturbance. Interference effects of kin support were evident and revealed that the positive relations of family economic pressure and race-related stress with sleep disturbance were less apparent with increases in kin support. Findings suggest that kinship ties are complex relations with costs and benefits that African American students must manage as they cope with stressful experiences in college.

Impostor phenomenon among Black undergraduates: Contributions of microaggressions, gender, and school belonging.

Racial microaggressions at predominantly White institutions (PWIs) are a major concern for Black undergraduates because these experiences evoke feelings of "otherness" and may contribute to growing impostor phenomenon beliefs (IP)-feelings of intellectual fraudulence where people question their academic abilities. School belonging (i.e., a sense of connection to one's academic institution) may be an important mediating factor that explains how racial microaggressions contribute to greater IP over time. Furthermore, these effects may be distinct for Black men and women, given their unique experiences at PWIs. The current longitudinal study utilizes moderated-mediation analyses to examine these effects among 269 Black undergraduates (Mage = 19.71, SD = 2.36, 72% female) over a full academic year at a PWI. Findings indicate that racial microaggressions indirectly predicted increased IP over a 1-year period through a negative association with schools belonging to Black men but not for Black women. These findings highlight the importance of gender and school belonging when examining how racial stressors contribute to changes in IP beliefs. Implications for theory and policy recommendations for educators and stakeholders are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

RECASTing racial coping stress in school: Self-efficacy as buffer for adolescent agency.

The consequences of racism and racial stress on the academic and social well-being of adolescents are profound and well-documented. However, our understanding of how adolescents navigate racial stress and develop the agency to address discriminatory encounters, particularly in settings where educators struggle to intervene with microaggressions, remains limited. Research into the development of racial coping self-efficacy (RCSE) and coping skills has shown promise in enhancing the overall well-being of youth. In this study, we employ racial encounter coping appraisal and socialization theory (RECAST) to investigate the relationships among key school-based factors that influence how students cope with racial challenges. Specifically, we examine the role of RCSE, agency, stress, vigilance, and sense of belonging in the school environment for students. Participants included 645 high school students from a diverse public school district who completed an online survey during a single class period. Analyses examined the mediating and moderating effects of RCSE, racial coping stress (RCS), and racial vigilance on agency. RCSE reduced the negative influence of RCS on student racial agency in resolving racial conflicts with teachers and peers, particularly for Latinx students. Implications for advancing RECAST-based interventions to help adolescents develop the agency to problem solve traumatic racial events in schools are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Exploring the Effectiveness and Acceptability of a Self-Help Acceptance-Based Behavior Intervention for Anxiety in Black Adults: An Uncontrolled Pilot Study

An estimated one in five Black Americans meet criteria for an anxiety disorder in their lifetimes (Alvarez et al., 2019), but only about 20% of these receive mental health services. Self-help materials that have been shown to be effective in reducing anxiety and worry could be one method of increasing access to evidence-informed treatments for Black Americans. The current study explored the acceptability and effectiveness of the Worry Less, Live More: The Mindful Way Through Anxiety Workbook (WLLM), a self-help workbook based on acceptance-based behavioral therapy, for reducing anxiety in a sample of Black individuals. Sixty-five Black individuals residing in the United States received the WLLM workbook and were asked to read it over 16 weeks at their own pace without intervention from researchers: 40 of those participants completed the follow-up survey. A majority of the participants agreed that the approach was a good match for them (70%) that it aligned with their personal and cultural views (60%), and that the strategies from the workbook were helpful for them when dealing with the stress related to encountering racial stressors (71%). There were significant improvements over time on self-reported general anxiety (d = .50, anxious arousal (d = .41), cognitive fusion (d = .45), and acceptance (d = .76), but no significant changes in engagement in values-based action over time. This study provided preliminary support for the acceptability of WLLM’s acceptance-based approach for Black adults.

A decolonized mental health framework for black women and birthing people

Black perinatal mental health is an area that has received less focus in psychotherapy research in the United States. This area is especially important as recent attacks on Reproductive Justice impact not only birthing people’s rights and freedoms but also their mental health and emotional well-being. Current psychotherapy interventions are rooted in evidence-based treatments (EBTs) that may not always align with the values and practices of frameworks like radical healing and liberation psychology that are meant to emphasize collective healing and empower individuals. To date, psychological research involving radical healing and liberation psychology approaches have not had a specific focus on birthing people. Psychotherapeutic interventions have also largely excluded the unique intersectional identities and healing of Black birthing people. In moving toward decolonizing psychotherapy, this conceptual paper will propose a multi-pronged framework for addressing racial stressors and other mental health concerns during the perinatal period. The proposed framework, The Three Cs of Decolonization, includes three components: Community, Creativity, and Connection to Self. These components of the framework are meant to address and highlight culturally relevant ways of healing for Black birthing people. Larger systemic changes are needed and necessary for the desired change across mental health, medical, and other integrated systems of care that have been impacted by racism and discrimination. The current framework is dedicated to healing and empowering Black birthing people with approaches and considerations that are consistent with Reproductive Justice.

Evidence that personalized racial stress procedures elicit a stress response and increases alcohol craving among Black adults with alcohol use disorder: A laboratory pilot study

BackgroundThe objective of this study was to pilot test newly developed personalized imagery procedures to investigate the impact of racial stress on alcohol craving and emotional and physiological response in Black adults with alcohol use disorder (AUD). MethodsTwenty Black adults (45% women, meanage=37.05, SDage=13.19) with AUD participated in two sessions. In the first, participants described a stressful personal event involving their race and a neutral relaxing situation and these descriptions were used to develop scripts for the subsequent laboratory exposure session. The second session was an experimental provocation session in which participants reported on alcohol craving and emotional response before and after imagined exposure to stress and neutral conditions using personalized racial stress and neutral/relaxing scripts. Conditions were randomized and counterbalanced across subjects, and heart rate and blood pressure were assessed before and after each image. ResultsAlcohol craving and negative emotions significantly increased, and positive emotions decreased following the racial stress script relative to the neutral/relaxing script. We found no differences in physiological response. Exploratory analyses found that increase in alcohol craving was correlated with racial identity exploration but not racial identity commitment, men reported greater reductions in anger than women in the neutral condition only, and income was correlated with fear in the racial stress condition only. ConclusionsThis study provides evidence that personalized racial stress procedures elicit a stress response and increases alcohol craving and emotional response but not physiological response among Black adults with AUD. These findings warrant replication in a larger study.

TRANSFORMing theory to practice: Developing and implementing an anti-racist, community-based racial stress and trauma group intervention for BIPOC youth

Evidence-informed trauma interventions developed specifically by and for Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) that address racial, historical, and intergenerational trauma are sparse, particularly for youth. To meet this need, the current study developed and piloted a new intervention – Trauma and Racism Addressed by Navigating Systemic Forms of Oppression using Resistance Methods (TRANSFORM) – using a and community-engaged research-to-practice approach. Across two phases, we documented the community-participatory development of TRANSFORM and analyzed preliminarily quantitative data collected in a pilot study with N = 19 BIPOC youth. Phase 1 reports on the process and lessons learned from the community centered co-development. The phase 2 pilot study results revealed statistically significant pretest-to-posttest reductions in racial discrimination stress as well as trauma-related symptoms interfering with daily functioning for youth. Implications for community-based approaches to disrupting and healing racial stress and trauma within and across youth-serving systems are discussed.

Black Young Adult Superwomen in the Face of Gendered Racial Microaggressions: Contextualizing Challenges With Acceptance and Avoidance and Emotional Eating.

Black young adult women (ages 18-35) are at disproportionate risk for obesity and emotional eating. Emotional eating interventions target psychological flexibility, such as reducing experiential avoidance and increasing acceptance of food-related thoughts. Yet Black women face gendered racism, and some endorse roles that reduce psychological flexibility, such as the superwoman schema role. Culturally centered stress and coping has often been overlooked, leading to an incomplete understanding of processes that engender emotional eating and the implications for appropriate and effective interventions for Black young adult women. We investigated direct and indirect pathways of associations between stress from gendered racial microaggressions to emotional eating through the endorsement of superwoman schema and two aspects of psychological flexibility. Black young adult women (N = 504; Mage = 24.72; 75.2% African American; 98.4% cisgender) participated in an online survey wherein they reported demographics, stress from gendered racial microaggressions, superwoman schema, experiential avoidance, acceptance of food-related thoughts, and emotional eating. Path analysis was conducted to examine direct and indirect effects. Results provided evidence for indirect associations between more stress from gendered racial microaggressions and more emotional eating. More stress was associated with greater endorsement of the superwoman schema which was associated with more experiential avoidance and less acceptance of food-related thoughts, which were each associated with more emotional eating. Endorsement of superwoman schema and concomitant avoidance and less acceptance may be one way that gendered racial stress propels emotional eating. Future research could test intervention components that disrupt this path.

Indirect effect of negative evaluations of therapy on the association between racial stress and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in pregnant Black persons.

Black pregnant individuals are at disproportionate risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) compared to other groups. A wealth of literature suggests racial stress contributes to this inequity, but cultural and structural mechanisms, such as perceived barriers to mental health treatment, underlying the relationship between racial stress and PTSD symptoms remain understudied. Negative evaluations of psychotherapy and stigma represent potential mechanisms, though no previous studies have examined these associations. To address this gap, we tested an indirect effect of racial stress on PTSD symptoms through perceived barriers to mental health treatment in pregnant Black individuals. Mediation analyses were used to assess an indirect relationship between racial stress and PTSD symptoms through perceived barriers to mental health treatment. At the bivariate level, racial stress was significantly associated with PTSD symptoms (r = .20, p = .03) and negative evaluations of therapy (r = .22, p = .02), but not with stigma (r = .140, p = .147). Negative evaluations of therapy were also associated with PTSD symptoms (r = .43, p < .001). There was an indirect effect of racial stress on PTSD symptoms through a negative evaluation of therapy, β = .08, SE = 0.04, CI [0.01, 0.18]. More specifically, racial stress was associated with a more negative evaluation of therapy, which was in turn associated with more PTSD symptoms. Results highlight the need for accessible and culturally competent mental health care for pregnant Black individuals. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Classrooms as Healing Spaces: Decolonizing Conceptual Frameworks of Black Girls in K-12 School Settings

ABSTRACT There is substantive research that examines the punitive and harsh disciplinary practices in K-12 schools and the disproportionate effects on students of Color. While race has been central to this critical discourse; gender has remained secondary. Although both Black girls and boys face unique challenges in their K-12 academic environments, there is a growing body of evidence suggesting gender, in addition to race, impacts educational and psychological development. More specifically, for many Black girls, education is presented as the key to better opportunities with liberative power. Interestingly, few curricula taught in K-12 schools are designed with consideration of Black girls, who must contend with the typical adolescent developmental tasks within the context of a society that often devalues them. This conceptual article proposes a paradigm shift, which centers strengths and healthy development of Black girls in a time of heightened racial stress. A review of empirical research on punitive environmental norms of schools and the disproportionate effects on Black girls is presented. A conceptual framework is provided to help guide K-12 educators in addressing the mental health needs of Black girls. The framework proposes an anti-racist, culturally informed approach rooted in social justice initiatives to identify strengths and skills for promoting healthy and adaptive pathways for K-12 education for Black girls. The article illuminates the importance of decriminalizing Black girls and promoting an anti-racist paradigm to contextualize their educational and mental health needs. The article concludes with strategies that seek to intentionally create healing spaces in school settings for Black girls to fully explore their identities toward a healthy development.

Racial Stress, Racial Trauma, and Evidence-Based Strategies for Coping and Empowerment.

Racial stress and racial trauma refer to psychological, physiological, and behavioral responses to race-based threats and discriminatory experiences. This article reviews the evidence base regarding techniques for coping with racial stress and trauma. These techniques include self-care, self-compassion, social support, mindfulness, cognitive restructuring, cognitive defusion, identity-affirming practices and development of racial/ethnic identity, expressive writing, social action and activism, and psychedelics. These strategies have shown the potential to mitigate psychological symptoms and foster a sense of empowerment among individuals affected by racial stress and trauma. While the ultimate goal should undoubtedly be to address the root cause of racism, it is imperative to acknowledge that until then, implementing these strategies can effectively provide much-needed support for individuals affected by racism.

What is Common Becomes Normal; Black-White Variation in the Effects of Adversities on Subsequent Initiation of Tobacco and Marijuana During Transitioning into Adolescence.

While adversities across domains of finance, race, family, and life may operate as risk factors for initiation of substance use in adolescents, the influence of these factors may vary across racial groups of youth. Unfortunately, the existing knowledge is minimal about racial differences in the types of adversities that may increase the risk of subsequent substance use initiation during the transition into adolescence. To compare racial groups for the effects of adversities across domains of finance, race, family, and life on subsequent substance use initiation among pre-adolescents transitioning into adolescence. In this longitudinal study, we analyzed data from 6003 non-Latino White and 1562 non-Latino African American 9-10-year-old children transitioning into adolescence. Data came from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Participants were followed for up to thirty-six months as they transitioned to adolescence. The independent variables were adversities related to the domains of finance, race, family, and life. The primary outcomes were time to first tobacco or marijuana use. Age, puberty, and gender were confounders. Cox regression models were used for data analysis. For White youth, tobacco use was under influence of having two parents in the household (HR = .611; 95% CI = .419-.891), parental education (HR = .900; 95% CI = .833-.972), household income (HR = .899; 95% CI = .817-.990), racial stress (HR = 1.569; 95% CI = 1.206-2.039), and life stress (HR =1.098 ; 95% CI = 1.024-1.178) and marijuana use was under influence of neighborhood income (HR = .576; 95% CI = .332-.999) and financial stress (HR =4.273; 95% CI = 1.280-17.422). No adverse condition predicted tobacco or marijuana use of African American youth. The effects of adversities on substance use depend on race. While various types of adversities tend to increase subsequent initiation of tobacco and marijuana, such factors may be less influential for African American adolescents, who experience more of such adversities. What is common may become normal.

"At the end of the day, someone done lost their child": A mixed methods analysis of Black families' experiences of the sociopolitical climate.

How Black Americans in the United States (U.S.) make sense of a sociopolitical climate marked by racist imagery, tensions, and police violence is important to understand given the numerously documented detrimental effects of racism-related stress on the well-being of Black parents and children. Informed by Racism-Related Stress Theory, the current study employed a convergent parallel mixed methods design to better understand the ways racism-related stressors in the sociopolitical climate impacted the daily lives and mental health of a sample of Black families with low income. Seventy-eight Black American preadolescents (Mage = 11.0; 43.6% girls) and their parents (79% mothers; 76% living below the U.S. federal poverty level [FPL]) from the southwestern U.S. reported their symptoms of depression and how they had been affected by racial stressors in the sociopolitical climate between Fall 2018 and Summer 2019. A nested sample of 10 parents (80% mothers; 80% living below the FPL) from the quantitative sample also participated in a semi-structured interview. Meta-inferences across methods were drawn pertaining to the influence of child gender on parents' interpretation of effects for children, the toll racism-related stress in the sociopolitical climate takes on Black families, and the transferal of effects on parents to children through parenting and parental depressive symptoms. Findings spotlight the need for policies and family-centered programming that address the racism-related stress faced by many Black youth and their families. Providing families with opportunities and tools that can potentially mitigate harmful effects and foster empowerment could promote positive and lasting change.

Unpacking the stress of 2020: Black Americans cope with systemic trauma

AbstractThe year 2020 was a challenging and traumatic year for Americans, especially Black Americans. Many Black people quickly succumbed to Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID‐19). This paper describes systemic trauma as a lens to conceptualize the effects of COVID‐19, racial stress and trauma, and grief. A recount of the events during the year 2020 is reviewed. Racism towards Black people was at an all‐time high. Complicated and collective grief was ever‐present. As a by‐product of COVID‐19, economic and health disparities resurfaced to further complicate Black people's well‐being. Systemic trauma is described as a comprehensive and inclusive framework that captures the intensity and depth of the trauma Black Americans experienced. We argue that culturally appropriate interventions are needed to help Black people continue to heal from the distress of 2020. Race‐informed trauma treatment is a culturally appropriate intervention that facilitates healing, improves the quality of life, and fosters posttraumatic growth for Black Americans. We offer race‐informed treatment as a theoretical orientation that can facilitate healing and posttraumatic growth for Black people.