Racial Regard Research Articles

Racial Socialization and Black Adolescent Mental Health and Developmental Outcomes: A Critical Review and Future Directions

ABSTRACT Objective Black American adolescents are beleaguered with the most frequent and severe experiences of racial discrimination (RD) among their peers. To protect Black adolescents’ mental health and developmental outcomes from the pernicious impact of discrimination, parents and other proximal adults and peers often utilize racial socialization (RS), or communications and behaviors emphasizing the importance of race and the harms of racism. While several recent RS reviews have been conducted across ethnicity, a modern review investigating RS practices related to and predictive of Black adolescent psychosocial outcomes is needed. Method To ground our critical systematic review of 45 articles, we first highlighted the ways RD impacts the lives of Black adolescents. Then, drawing from integrative models for Black youth development, we synthesized recent psychological, academic, and sociocultural literatures to describe the role of RS in Black adolescents’ wellness. Results The impact of various tenets of RS was seen most clearly as a protective factor against RD with respect to adolescents’ mental health (e.g. depression), academic achievement (e.g. GPA), and sociocultural identity (e.g. public and private racial regard) development. Cultural socialization, a strategy related to extolling pride for one’s race, was the most consistent RS protective factor, with novel RS constructs (e.g. parental competency) emerging as a method to buffer youth internalizing and externalizing problems. Conclusions Recommendations are made for future research on understudied components of RS and multiple methods and reporters to capture a more holistic depiction of RS practices. We emphasize preventative and intervening approaches to reduce the impetus for RS and its impact, including burgeoning clinical and community-level programs and the importance for provider training to yield positive mental health outcomes for Black adolescents.

THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC DISCRIMINATION AND INSTITUTIONAL BETRAYAL ON CANADIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ MENTAL HEALTH

ABSTRACT The aims of this study were to understand associations among mental health symptoms, ethnic discrimination, and institutional betrayal, and explore the potential role of protective factors (e.g. ethnic identity and racial regard) in attenuating the detrimental effects of discrimination and betrayal. A total of 89 racialized Canadian university students were recruited for this study. Self-report measures investigated demographics, mental health symptoms, experiences of discrimination and institutional betrayal, racial regard, and ethnic identity. Experiencing ethnic discrimination was associated with increased symptoms of depression and PTSD, even when controlling for the buffering effects of protective factors. Marginally significant results suggested that institutional betrayal might play a role in this relationship. Experiencing ethnic discrimination is linked to significant posttraumatic consequences. Unhelpful institutional responses may further aggravate symptoms. Universities have a duty to protect victims, and prevent ethnic discrimination.

Racial Regard and Physical Health Among Low-Income Black Caregivers of Children With and Without Asthma

The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between child health, parent racial regard, and parent physical health in 87 African American and Black parents/caregivers of children with and without asthma from a low-income, under-resourced urban area. Participants completed the Private and Public Regard subscales of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI) and 12-item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12). Parents of children with asthma reported having poorer physical health, while those with higher public and private racial regard reported better physical health. The association between public regard and physical health was surpassed by an interaction of child asthma status and public regard: as public regard decreased, so did physical health, but only for parents raising a child with asthma. Findings suggest that the stresses associated with raising a child with chronic illness and perceiving lower public racial regard may together confer additional risk for poor physical health in African American and Black parents.

Cultural Racism and Depression in Black Adolescents: Examining Racial Socialization and Racial Identity as Moderators.

The current study explored parental racial socialization and racial regard as moderators of the effects of cultural racism on depression symptoms among Black adolescents (N = 604, Mage = 15.44). When adolescents reported lower private regard and lower cultural pride messages or higher public regard and lower alertness to discrimination messages, the negative effects of cultural racism on depression symptoms were exacerbated. When adolescents reported higher private regard and more cultural pride messages, the negative effects of cultural racism on depression symptoms were attenuated. Findings suggest that racial messages transmitted to Black adolescents combined with their own racial attitudes can alter the effect of cultural racism on depression symptoms.

Racial identity and changes in psychological distress using the multidimensional model of racial identity.

Researchers have noted that racial identity-the personal significance and meaning of race (Sellers, Chavous, & Cooke, 1998)-may serve as a protective factor against the impact of racism-related stress and promote psychological well-being for African American young adults. One limitation of prior research is the failure to examine how changes in racial identity may relate to changes in psychological well-being over time, specifically those racial identity beliefs that are proposed to be stable. This study examined racial identity and its association with changes in overall psychological distress among African American college students. The sample included 171 African American college students (69% female) attending a predominately White institution in the southeastern United States using 5 waves of data collected over 3 years. Latent curve modeling revealed increases in racial centrality, private regard, and nationalist ideology, and decreases in public regard and assimilationist, humanist, and oppressed minority ideologies (comparative fit index range: 0.94-1.00; root-mean-square error of approximation range: .00-.07). Growth curve modeling also revealed that initial levels of racial identity predicted changes in psychological distress. Of note, higher initial levels of private regard were associated with sharper declines in psychological distress over time (β = .37, Sz E = .17, p = .027). Additionally, individuals with lower initial levels of public regard experienced greater declines in psychological distress over time as compared to individuals with higher levels of public regard (β = .60, SE = .15, p < .001). Findings suggest that racial identity dimensions that are proposed to be stable may change over time. These results also suggest that initial levels of racial identity variables (i.e., racial regard) predict later rates of change in psychological distress. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Investigating School Racial Climate and Private Racial Regard as Risk and Protector Factors for Black High School Students’ School Engagement

This investigation examined associations between school racial climate (racial fairness, teacher discrimination, and peer discrimination), private racial regard, and school engagement (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive) in a sample of 151 Black high school students. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that students who perceived their school environment to be more impartial and equitable for Black students also reported higher school engagement on all dimensions. Furthermore, teacher discrimination was associated with emotional engagement, whereas higher levels of perceived discrimination from peers were associated with both higher levels of behavioral engagement and cognitive engagement. In addition, two significant interactions were found: private regard moderated the relationship between teacher discrimination and emotional engagement, and the relationship between peer discrimination and cognitive engagement.

Race-based marginalization and private racial regard in Asian Americans: Self-esteem and nativity as moderators.

Race-based marginalization and private racial regard in Asian Americans: Self-esteem and nativity as moderators.

“We just want to break the stereotype”: Tensions in Black boys’ critical social analysis of their suburban school experiences.

This study used a youth participatory action research (YPAR) approach to explore the meaning five Black boys make of race, identity, and oppression through their school experiences in a suburban high school. The first author developed, cofacilitated, and assumed the role of participant observer in a YPAR afterschool program aimed at promoting sociopolitical development. The participants completed photovoice projects identifying problems in and solutions for their school community. In their initial framing of the projects, they espoused a deficit narrative of Black student achievement, rooted in low public and private racial regard: Black students are not achieving. At the end of the program year, with the help of individual and group meaning-making in the YPAR program, some participant narratives shifted away from a deficit narrative, and two participants presented a counternarrative that emphasized the ways in which Black students are trying and achieving. These findings contribute to our understanding of how YPAR programs, as situated in liberation and transformative psychology, facilitate critical social analysis for Black boys. Furthermore, these findings contribute to the literature on the experiences of Black boys in suburban schools, through the voices and perspectives of the boys themselves. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)

O15 Health Habits of African American Women and the Impact of Racial Identity

Background Social position, discrimination based on group identity, and stress are major contributors to an individual's social determinant of health. Managing health outcomes for African American women becomes far more than simply providing education and access; it hinges on understanding the construct of race and the implications of race-based stress (Hill-Collins, 2005; Sanders-Phillips, Settles-Reaves, Walker & Brownlow, 2009; Shavers, 2006). Objective To investigate the impact of racial identity and resilience on the health habits of African American women. Study Design, Settings, Participants A cross-sectional design using a non-probability sample was used to study the relationship between fruit and vegetable consumption, racial identity, and resilience. Participants were recruited using social media focusing on platforms for Black/African American women. Cis-gendered African American who were 18 years of age or older were studied. Measurable Outcome/Analysis In this study, the Multidimensional Model of Black Identity, the Resilience Scale for Adults, and a modified NHANES survey was use to collect data to examine the relationships between resilience, Black identity, and health habits. Results Survey results were analyzed using SPSS v.11 for Windows. Simple linear regression used to examine the relationship between resilience, Black identity, and health habits. Public regard was positively association with fruit intake and vigorous physical activity. Additionally, centrality was associated with vigorous physical activity and minority identity was associated with fruit intake (P Conclusion Positive racial regard and social competence had beneficial impacts on fruit consumption, while a high association with the minority identity had an inverse relationship with fruit consumption. Public regard and racial centrality was positively associated with vigorous physical activity. Significant changes in morbidity and in health behavior are associated with acculturation for all ethnic minority groups in Anglo-majority host cultures such as the United States. Consequently, acculturation is an important variable in health psychology and behavioral medicine, which requires examination. Funding None.

An Examination and Interrogation of African American Males’ Racial Identity, Prosocial Behaviors and Aggression

Using multiple regression analysis and Pearson’s R, the current exploratory study of 89 African American male adolescents (M = 12.5 years old) examined relationships among REI (i.e., 20 as a socialization product of identity formation processes), prosocial behaviors (i.e., represented as supportive behavioral orientation in response to stress), and aggression (i.e., a reactive coping strategy). Significant relationships among racial public regard, age, and verbal aggression emerged. Older adolescents believed that other people have lower regard for their race, and this predicted an increase in verbal aggression. These findings demonstrate the importance of understanding contextual factors when examining outcomes.

Black-white Biracial Students’ Evaluations of Blackness: The Role of College in Shaping Racial Regard

This study explores biracial students’ racial regard, an evaluative component of racial identity that captures positive and negative feelings about the racial groups to which one belongs. Drawing on data from interviews with 62 black-white biracial students attending predominantly white institutions (PWIs) or historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), I explore the conditions of educational contexts that promote or hinder development of positive racial regard. HBCU students highlighted the importance of college for improving their evaluations of blackness, while narratives of improved regard were rare among PWI students. Students’ evaluations of blackness and descriptions of contact with black peers support contact theory’s propositions about the type of contact likely to improve racial attitudes; specifically, I show how HBCUs can improve racial regard by facilitating institutionally supported contact between equal-status black and biracial students in the pursuit of common goals. My findings also extend contact theory by suggesting another condition of contact that can improve evaluations of blackness: contact with a heterogeneous group of black peers. These findings add to the literature on biracial identity by exploring racial regard, an understudied dimension of racial identity with important mental health implications. The findings also speak to the importance of HBCUs for fostering positive racial regard at a time when the purpose and longevity of these institutions is often questioned.

African American Women and Obesity Through the Prism of Race.

There are minimal studies focusing on African American women and obesity, and there are even fewer studies examining obesity through a critical race theoretical framework. African American obesity research has largely focused on individual and community interventions, which have not been sufficient to reverse the obesity epidemic. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between race and body mass index (BMI) for African American women. Previously collected data from the National Survey of American Life Self-Administered Questionnaire, 2001-2003 (NSAL-SAQ) was analyzed for this study. The NSAL-SAQ dedicated a section to the exploration of group and personal identity, along with having anthropometric data and health habit questions to be able to conduct analyses for associations between the racial identity dimensions and obesity. Multiple linear regression was used to examine the constructs of racial identity on BMI comparing standardized coefficients (β) and R2adj values. Results indicated participants ascribing more to the stereotype of "Blacks giving up easily" (β = 0.527, p = .000) showed an increased BMI. Additionally, the negative stereotype of "Blacks being violent" (β = 0.663, p = .000) and "Blacks being lazy" (β = 0.506, p = .001) was associated with an increased BMI. Based on these finds high negative racial regard is associated with increased weight. This study contributes uniquely to the scientific literature, focusing on the construct of racial identity and obesity in African American women.

Accusations of Acting White

The acting White accusation is a negative insult that many Black students encounter from peers, and research suggests that these experiences may be potentially detrimental to psychosocial outcomes. The current study examined the relationship between specific aspects of the acting White accusation (e.g., frequency of occurrence, induced discomfort), racial/ethnic identity (e.g., racial regard, exploration, commitment), and mental health (e.g., depressive symptoms, anxiety, emotional stress). Data from a sample of Black college students ( n = 198) were evaluated using both variable-centered and person-centered analytical techniques. Results indicated that frequency of the accusation predicted lower racial/ethnic identity and more severe mental health symptoms, whereas the level of discomfort predicted higher racial/ethnic identification. Latent class analysis revealed that perceived experiences with the acting White accusation were represented by four distinct profiles, three of which differed significantly in dimensions of racial/ethnic identity. Findings suggest that the accusation of acing White is perceived differently by individual Black students and carries a distinctive risk for psychosocial outcomes.

Content and Attributions of Caregiver Racial Socialization as Predictors of African American Adolescents’ Private Racial Regard

The purpose of this study was to investigate the moderating effect of adolescents’ beliefs about socialization from caregivers (“attributions”) on the link between racial socialization and private regard. This research addresses the paucity of literature on adolescent attributions as a context for the relation between socialization and private regard. The independent roles of racial barrier, racial pride, and self-worth messages were examined. Adolescents’ attributions were defined as beliefs that race-based messages were coming from a parent-child relationship characterized by love, autonomy, and care. Moderation analyses on the sample of 88 African American and biracial youth (ages 11-14 years) revealed that for adolescents who placed more emphasis on a positive relationship quality as the purpose for receiving socialization, self-worth messages were associated with higher private regard. The findings support the importance of attending to adolescents’ attributions for socialization and the impact that it has on fostering positive feelings about being African American.

Jewish American Identity: Patterns of Centrality and Regard

Previous identity research has explored the presence and patterning of racial centrality and regard among African American, Latino, Asian, and multiracial Americans and their connection with important life outcomes. Extending that work, this study used cluster analysis to explore the unique combinations of centrality and regard among 174 Jewish American emerging adults (48 men, 125 women, 1 undifferentiated). Results parallel identity profiles observed among African American adolescents and adults, yet suggest potential age-related differences in profile content.

Integrating Process with Content in Understanding African American Racial Identity Development

Historically, racial identity research has focused on either the process by which identity develops or the content of the identities that individuals hold. This paper investigates the nexus of these approaches. Specifically, cluster analysis was used to locate 204 African American college students in one of four statuses of development outlined by Phinney (1989) and examine movement across clusters over time. Mean differences in the content of individuals' racial Centrality, racial Regard, and racial Ideology beliefs across clusters at both time points were then assessed. Results indicate some relationship between process and content such that higher levels of development are associated with higher levels of identification with and more positive attitudes toward one's racial group.

Preserving positive identities: Public and private regard for one's ingroup and susceptibility to stereotype threat

The current study examines the effect of racial regard—feelings of positivity or negativity toward African Americans—on stereotype threat. Forty participants at Harvard University responded to questions concerning their social attitudes and returned later to take a difficult verbal test. This study replicated the well-established stereotype threat effect, and found evidence that both public regard (judgments concerning how others view Blacks) and private regard (how one views Blacks and feels about being Black) moderate the effect. Specifically, Blacks high in public regard and high in private regard appear more susceptible to stereotype threat effects. The article discusses the possibility that African Americans in our study face an additional cognitive burden when confronted with the need to preserve a positive identity.

Physiologic Responses to Racial Rejection Images Among Young Adults from African-American Backgrounds

Physiologic reactivity to racially rejecting images was assessed in 35 young adults (10 males, 25 female) from African-American backgrounds using the startle probe paradigm. In a laboratory setting, participants viewed 16 images depicting racial rejection, racial acceptance, nonracial negative, and nonracial positive themes. While viewing these images, startling bursts of noise were presented and the magnitude of the eyeblink responses were measured. Results supported an attentional mechanism which suggests that, while viewing both racially rejecting and nonracial positive images, individuals may be so absorbed in processing the images that they appear less distracted by the startling noise. However, these patterns were only found for participants low in racial regard. Young adults who felt positively about their racial background did not exhibit differential processing of startle stimuli as a function of slide themes. Race-rejection sensitivity did not moderate startle reactivity. Developmental implications, particularly in light of coping with racial discrimination, are discussed.

The relationship between racial identity and self-esteem in African American college and high school students.

The Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity was used to examine the relationship between racial identity and personal self-esteem (PSE) in a sample of African American college students (n = 173) and a sample of African American high school students (n = 72). Racial identity was assessed using the Centrality and Regard scales of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity, whereas the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was used to assess PSE. Four predictions were tested: (a) racial centrality is weakly but positively related to PSE; (b) private regard is moderately related to PSE; (c) public regard is unrelated to PSE; and (d) racial centrality moderates the relationship between private regard and PSE. Multiple regression analysis found that racial centrality and public racial regard were unrelated to PSE in both samples. Private regard was positively related to PSE in the college sample. Racial centrality moderated the relationship between private regard and PSE in both samples, such that the relationship was significant for those with high levels of centrality but nonsignificant for those with low levels.