Racial Identity Beliefs Research Articles

Perceptions of adolescents' racial discrimination experiences, racial identity, and depressive symptoms among Black American fathers.

This study examined whether Black American fathers' perceptions of their adolescents' experiences of racial discrimination were related to fathers' depressive symptoms and if this association was moderated by fathers' racial identity beliefs and adolescent gender. Racial discrimination is not only an individual-level but also a family-level stressor for Black families. Racial discrimination experienced by parents can spillover to influence their children; however, fewer studies have examined how adolescents' discrimination experiences relate to parents' psychological outcomes, especially among Black fathers. Data were collected via online survey from 240 Black fathers (Mage = 45.93 years, SD = 8.72) of adolescents (Mage = 14.44 years, SD = 2.11) residing in the United States. Participants completed questions about their racial identity beliefs and depressive symptoms, as well as their adolescents' experiences with racial discrimination. Regression analyses revealed that adolescent-experienced racial discrimination was directly associated with fathers' depressive symptoms. Fathers whose race was more central to them (racial centrality) had higher depressive symptoms when their adolescents had high racial discrimination experiences. Also, fathers' beliefs about how Black people are viewed by society (public regard) moderated the relation between adolescent-experienced racial discrimination and fathers' depressive symptoms differently based on adolescent gender. Adolescent gender also moderated the relation between fathers' personal feelings about being Black (private regard) and their depressive symptoms. Overall, fathers' beliefs about their race, as well as the gender of their adolescents, play a role in their psychological health when their adolescents experience discrimination.

Superwoman, Racial Identity, and Teen Dating Violence Victimization among Young Black Women.

Young Black women consistently report the highest rates of teen dating violence (TDV) in the United States. They are also navigating a world in which they are facing historical marginalization and intersectional oppression. The Superwoman stereotypic role, in which Black women showcase strength and resist vulnerability, is often adapted in reaction to this normalized existence. Yet little research has examined how these constructs are related. In addition, research suggests that a positive racial identity may function as a psychological buffer against society's negative view of Black Americans and reduce involvement in violence. The current study examined the relationship between endorsement of a Superwoman role and TDV victimization among young Black women. A total of 481 Black women, aged 18-19, completed online survey measures assessing their racial identity beliefs, endorsement of racial stereotypes, and TDV experiences. The results of the path models showed that endorsement of a Superwoman role was associated with increased TDV victimization. Results also showed that racial centrality was inversely associated with TDV; the more the young women felt that being Black was a central part of their identity, the less they reported victimization. Findings suggest a need for attention to stereotype development and racial identity in the development of healthy romantic relationships for Black youth.

The Associations Between Internalized Racism, Racial Identity, and Psychological Distress.

Internalized racism, or the acceptance of negative stereotypes about one's own racial group, is associated with psychological distress; yet, few studies have explored the longitudinal impact of internalized racism on the psychological well-being of African American emerging adults. Furthermore, racial identity's role as a protective factor in the context of internalized racism remains unclear. This study examined the longitudinal impact of internalized racism on psychological distress (depressive and anxiety symptoms) and the moderating role of racial identity beliefs among 171 African American emerging adults. Full cross-lagged panel models revealed no main effects of internalized racism beliefs on psychological distress. However, several racial identity beliefs moderated the relationship between internalized racism beliefs and changes in psychological distress over a year later. Initial levels of alteration of physical appearance, internalization of negative stereotypes, and hair change internalized racism beliefs were related to subsequent psychological distress, but only for those with certain levels of racial centrality, private regard, public regard, and assimilationist, humanist, and nationalist ideology beliefs. These findings suggest that, over time, internalized racism and racial identity beliefs can combine to influence the psychological well-being of African American emerging adults.

An investigation of Jezebel stereotype awareness, gendered racial identity and sexual beliefs and behaviours among Black adult women

Evidence suggests that the intersectional nature of Black women’s race and gender identities influence their awareness of sexual scripts such as the hypersexual, Jezebel stereotype. This study examined the role of the Jezebel stereotype and Black women’s identity beliefs on their sexual beliefs and behaviours. Specifically, we investigated the role of gendered racial identity beliefs on the relationship between Jezebel stereotype awareness and Black women’s sexual behaviours (sexual assertiveness, sexual satisfaction, sexual guilt and attachment avoidance in relationships). A diverse national sample of Black women completed measures of gendered racial identity beliefs, Jezebel stereotype awareness and sexual behaviours. Black women who felt more positively connected to their Black woman identity reported greater sexual assertiveness and satisfaction. Consistent with past research, more awareness of the Jezebel stereotype was associated with higher sexual guilt and attachment avoidance. We discuss the enduring legacy of the Jezebel stereotype in relation to Black women’s gendered racial identity beliefs, as well as the importance of promoting positive sexual beliefs and a sense of sexual agency among Black women in the USA.

Racial identity and changes in psychological distress using the multidimensional model of racial identity.

Researchers have noted that racial identity-the personal significance and meaning of race (Sellers, Chavous, & Cooke, 1998)-may serve as a protective factor against the impact of racism-related stress and promote psychological well-being for African American young adults. One limitation of prior research is the failure to examine how changes in racial identity may relate to changes in psychological well-being over time, specifically those racial identity beliefs that are proposed to be stable. This study examined racial identity and its association with changes in overall psychological distress among African American college students. The sample included 171 African American college students (69% female) attending a predominately White institution in the southeastern United States using 5 waves of data collected over 3 years. Latent curve modeling revealed increases in racial centrality, private regard, and nationalist ideology, and decreases in public regard and assimilationist, humanist, and oppressed minority ideologies (comparative fit index range: 0.94-1.00; root-mean-square error of approximation range: .00-.07). Growth curve modeling also revealed that initial levels of racial identity predicted changes in psychological distress. Of note, higher initial levels of private regard were associated with sharper declines in psychological distress over time (β = .37, Sz E = .17, p = .027). Additionally, individuals with lower initial levels of public regard experienced greater declines in psychological distress over time as compared to individuals with higher levels of public regard (β = .60, SE = .15, p < .001). Findings suggest that racial identity dimensions that are proposed to be stable may change over time. These results also suggest that initial levels of racial identity variables (i.e., racial regard) predict later rates of change in psychological distress. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

African American Fathers’ Race-Related Discussions with Their Children: Associations with Racial Identity Beliefs and Sociodemographic Factors

Studies have highlighted that, for African American men, race-related and sociodemographic contexts are inextricably bound and have profound effects across the life course. These context and related experiences, individually and collectively, are critical social determinants of their parenting practices. The current study examined African American fathers’ racial identity beliefs in relation to their ethnic-racial socialization practices. Further, this investigation examines this association within the context of sociodemographic factors (i.e., age; education level; residential status). Data were collected from 174 African American fathers (M = 32.2; SD = 8.24; Range = 23–62 years of age) of adolescents (M = 12.6; SD = 2.20; Range = 8–18 years of age) residing in a mid-sized, urban city in the Southeastern region of the United States. Participants completed survey questionnaires regarding their parenting ideologies, sociocontextual experiences and parenting practices. Regression analyses revealed that racial identity dimensions (centrality; public regard; private regard) and sociodemographic factors were directly associated with multiple ethnic-racial socialization domains. Also, the relationship between fathers’ perceptions of others’ views about African Americans (public regard) and ethnic-racial socialization was moderated by residential status. Findings suggest that, African American fathers’ public regard beliefs, in combination with sociodemographic factors, shape race-related discussions with their children. Overall, results suggest that the public lens of fatherhood is further heightened by African American fathers’ sociodemographic landscape.

Racial Identity, Racial Discrimination, and Classroom Engagement Outcomes Among Black Girls and Boys in Predominantly Black and Predominantly White School Districts

This study examined the associations among racial identity beliefs (centrality and public regard), racial discrimination, and academic engagement outcomes among 1,659 African American adolescents across two demographically distinct school districts, one predominantly Black, working class ( n = 1,100) and one predominantly White, middle class ( n = 559). Across these districts, the youths reported that race was a central aspect of their identity and demonstrated varying levels of public regard. Racial discrimination was negatively associated with academic curiosity and persistence, but this effect was moderated by gender and racial identity. Our findings demonstrate the harmful influence of discrimination on the academic engagement of African American adolescents and the protective roles of racial identity beliefs across gender and school racial contexts.

The Importance of Racial Socialization: School-Based Racial Discrimination and Racial Identity Among African American Adolescent Boys and Girls.

This study examined various parental racial socialization messages as mediators between school-based racial discrimination and racial identity formation over 4years for African American boys (N=639) and African American girls (N=711). Findings indicated that school-based racial discrimination was associated with racial identity beliefs. For African American boys, behavioral racial socialization messages mediated the relation between school-based racial discrimination and racial centrality over time. Mediation also resulted for African American girls, but for a different set of race-related messages (negative messages and racial barriers) and racial identity beliefs. The developmental significance of the findings and implications for future research are discussed.

Promoting Resilience Among African American Girls: Racial Identity as a Protective Factor.

This study examines school climate, racial identity beliefs, and achievement motivation beliefs within a cultural-ecological and risk and resilience framework. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of 733 (Mage =14.49) African American adolescent girls. A linear mixed effects model was used to determine if racial identity dimensions moderated the relationship between school climate and achievement motivation beliefs across four waves. Results revealed that racial identity (private regard and racial centrality) and ideology (nationalist) beliefs were associated with higher achievement motivation beliefs over time, while racial centrality and private regard, and a sense of belonging served as protective factors. The findings contribute to the importance of racial identity beliefs and increase the visibility of African American girls.

Shifting Contexts and Shifting Identities: Campus Race-Related Experiences, Racial Identity, and Academic Motivation Among Black Students During the Transition to College

This study examined Black college students’ (N = 309, 70% women) racial identity beliefs over their freshman year. Using latent class cluster analysis, we identified clusters reflecting patterns of change and stability in students’ racial centrality (importance of race to overall self-concept), private regard (group pride), and public regard (perceptions of others’ views of Blacks). Racial identity change clusters were distinguished by campus experiences (racial discrimination, interracial friendships, and campus racial climate). Racial identity change clusters predicted end-of-year academic motivation (competence, affect, interest/curiosity, and persistence). Findings suggest the importance of examining critical transitions in identity development and highlight the deleterious effects of stigmatizing campus experiences on identity. Findings also highlight ways students’ racial identity beliefs may help promote academic motivation.

African American Fathers' Racial Socialization Patterns: Associations with Racial Identity Beliefs and Discrimination Experiences

Existing parenting frameworks have suggested that fathers' developmental histories and social experiences are important determinants of their parenting practices. Few studies, however, have examined how the larger racial context is related to the parenting and socialization practices of African American fathers. Using a profile‐oriented approach, this investigation examines how fathers' racial identity beliefs (racial centrality and regard) and discrimination experiences are associated with race‐related socialization patterns identified by Cooper, Smalls, Neblett, and Banks (2014). Participants were 166 African American fathers (M = 32.20, SD = 8.24) of adolescents (M = 12.60, SD = 2.20). Latent profile analyses identified five distinct racial socialization patterns among fathers: (a) infrequent racial socializers, (b) negative racial socializers, (c) positive racial socializers, (d) low race salience socializers, and (e) race salience socializers. Results indicated that racial socialization patterns were distinctively associated with African American fathers' racial identity and discrimination experiences. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Racial identity and depressive symptoms among Black emerging adults: the moderating effects of neighborhood racial composition.

In the current study, we explored patterns of change in Black emerging adults' racial identity beliefs during the transition to adulthood, assessed neighborhood racial composition effects on Black emerging adults' racial identity beliefs, and tested the moderating effects of neighborhood racial composition on the associations between Black emerging adults' racial identity beliefs and depressive symptoms over time. Participants in the current study included 570 Black adolescents (52% female) who were transitioning into adulthood (senior year of high school through 5 years post- high school). We did not find average patterns of change in Black emerging adults' racial identity beliefs over time. Further, neighborhood racial composition did not predict participants' beginning status or growth in racial identity beliefs over time. We, however, found evidence that neighborhood racial composition may moderate the associations between Black emerging adults' racial identity beliefs and symptoms of depression over time. Findings from the current study underscore the importance of considering how the larger social context may interact with individuals' racial identity beliefs to influence Black emerging adults' psychological health.

African American identity: racial and cultural dimensions of the black experience

Part 1. Theoretical and Methodological Issues in African American Racial Identity Chapter 1. Forty Years of Cross' Nigrescence Theory: From Stages to Profiles, From African Americans to All Americans Chapter 2. The Conceptualization and Measurement of Racial Identity and Racial Identification within Psychology Chapter 3. African American Racial Identity Research in Political Science: The Need for a Multidimensional Measure Part 2. African American Racial Identity and Psychological Well-Being Chapter 4. The Effects of Racial Identity on African-American Youth Well-Being: A Clarification of the Research and Meta-analysis Chapter 5. Black Identity and Well-Being: Untangling Race and Ethnicity Chapter 6. Black Racial/Ethnic Identity and Its Impact on Well-Being: Bridging Identity Theory and Racial/Ethnic Identity Research Chapter 7. When Racial Identity Matters: Stressful Events and Mental Health in Rural African American Adolescents Part 3. African American Racial Identity and Physical Health Chapter 8. The Role of African American Racial Identification in Health Behavior Chapter 9. Vascular Depression and African Americans: A Population at Risk Part 4. African American Racial Identity Development and Effects on Parents and Children Chapter 10. Black Like Me: The Race Socialization of African American Boys by Nonresident Fathers Chapter 11. Toward a Model of Racial Identity and Parenting in African Americans Chapter 12. African American Children's Racial Identification and Identity: Development of Racial Narratives Part 5. African American Racial Identity and Influence on Educational Behavior Chapter 13. Racial Identity as a Buffer to Discrimination among Low Income African American Adolescents: An Examination of Academic Performance Chapter 14. The Congruence Between African American Students' Racial Identity Beliefs and their Academic Climates: Implications for Academic Motivation and Achievement Chapter 15. The Influence of African American Racial Identity on Standardized Test Performance Chapter 16. An Exploration of Racial Identity among Black Doctoral Students Involved in Cross-Race Advising Relationships Chapter 17. The Relationship between African American Males' Collegiate Peer Support Groups and Their Racial Identity Development

Racial Identity, Racial Context, and Ingroup Status: Implications for Attributions to Discrimination Among Black Canadians

Using Self-Categorization Theory as a conceptual framework for understanding attributions to discrimination, the primary aim of this study was to move beyond focusing on the degree to which racial minorities define themselves in terms of their race (i.e., racial centrality). Specifically, the authors examined how multiple dimensions of Black racial identity affected attributions to racial discrimination in two attributionally ambiguous situations. For Black Canadians exposed to intergroup contexts, racial identity beliefs that emphasize the distinctiveness of the Black experience (low public regard and nationalist ideology) were associated with greater perceived discrimination across the two situations, whereas racial identity beliefs that stress the similarities between the Black experience and that of other groups (assimilationist and humanist ideologies) were associated with perceiving less discrimination. Racial identity beliefs did not predict attributions when the target and potential perpetrator were members of the same racial group. Implications for studying the relationship between Black racial identity and perceived discrimination are discussed.

A Preliminary Analysis of Associations Among Ethnic–Racial Socialization, Ethnic Discrimination, and Ethnic Identity Among Urban Sixth Graders

Drawing from cultural ecological models of adolescent development, the present research investigates how early adolescents received ethnic–racial socialization from parents as well as how experiences of ethnic and racial discrimination are associated with their ethnic identity (i.e., centrality, private regard, and public regard). Data for this study were drawn from a multimethod study of ethnically and socioeconomically diverse early adolescents in three mid‐ to high‐achieving schools in New York City. After accounting for the influences of race/ethnicity, social class, gender, immigrant status, and self‐esteem, parental ethnic–racial socialization was associated with higher levels of ethnic centrality (i.e., the extent to which youth identify themselves in terms of their group), more positive private regard (i.e., feelings about one's own ethnic group), and public regard (i.e., perceptions of other people's perceptions of their ethnic group). Ethnic discrimination from adults at school and from peers was associated with more negative perceptions of one's ethnic group (i.e., public regard). In addition, the association of ethnic–racial parent socialization and ethnic identity beliefs was stronger for those who reported higher levels of adult discrimination. Results highlight key ways in which ethnic identity may be shaped by the social ecologies in which adolescents are embedded.

Racial Ideological Beliefs and Racial Discrimination Experiences as Predictors of Academic Engagement Among African American Adolescents

Adolescents' understandings of their social identities and related personal experiences influence their adaptations and responses within domains in which those identities are salient. The authors explore associations of racial identity beliefs regarding how Blacks should act, think, and behave (racial ideologies) and racial discrimination experiences with academic engagement outcomes among 390 African American adolescents in Grades 7 to 10. Results indicate that youths' endorsement of ideological beliefs emphasizing being more like Whites (assimilation ideology) related to more fears of being viewed as high achievers by peers (public oppositional academic identification), lower academic persistence and curiosity, and more school behavioral problems. Emphasizing commonalties with Blacks and other oppressed groups (minority ideology) related to positive engagement outcomes. Youths reporting more racial discrimination showed lower school engagement. Finally, racial ideologies moderated the relationship between discrimination and academic outcomes, such that youths holding stronger assimilation views showed lower academic identification when reporting racial discrimination, relative to youth who endorsed those views less. Findings are discussed relative to their potential impact on ethnic minority achievement research and educational practice.

Racial identity beliefs and academic achievement: does being black hold students back?

The examination of a student’s racial identity beliefs along with the extent to which being Black is a central part of his or her self-concept provides a novel, insightful approach to understanding the relationship between racial identity and academic achievement (Chavous et al., 2003,). Using Sellers et al. (1998a) Multi-dimensional Model of Black Identity (MMBI) as a framework, this study investigated racial centrality, public regard and private regard beliefs in relation to the grade point average of African–American high-school students. A total of 289 African–American students from a large urban district participated in this study. Cluster analyses conducted on the three subscales of the MMBI on separate samples of 9th and 12th grade students replicated three of four racial identity profile groups previously identified by Chavous et al. (2003). Additionally, among both 9th and 12th grade students, Alienated students achieved significantly higher grade point averages than did Idealized students.