Racial Identity Attitudes Research Articles

The predictive efficacy of racial identity attitudes, historically Black college/university attendance, and sources of motivation in Black therapists’ career choices.

The predictive efficacy of racial identity attitudes, historically Black college/university attendance, and sources of motivation in Black therapists’ career choices.

Racial Identity Attitudes and Vicarious Traumatization from Undue Police Violence on Anticipatory Traumatic Reaction Among Black Americans.

Although the viral nature of videos that capture violent and racialized policing of Black Americans in the United States can increase awareness, exposure to race-based violence can result in vicarious traumatization, particularly among Black Americans. The relationship between anticipatory traumatic reactions (ATRs) and racial identity attitudes is not clearly addressed in the extant body of literature. The current study addresses this research disparity by first analyzing group mean differences among Black Americans (N = 138) who were assigned to audiovisual, written, and imaginal exposure groups. The current study also used a cluster analysis of Black Americans to examine the differences between racial identity attitudes and ATRs following media exposure to undue police violence. Results from the study indicated that no differences in ATRs existed based on types of media exposure. Significant differences across three racial identity clusters existed between ATR in association with attitudes of assimilation, miseducation, self-hatred, anti-dominance, and ethnic-racial salience. Findings from the study suggest that mental health professionals should attend to racial identity attitudes as a relevant factor in how Black American clients experience the psychological impact of media exposure to undue police violence.

Black Educators’ Racial Identity Attitudes and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: A Psychological Framework and Survey of Within-Race Diversity

Historically, Black educators have played a critical role in Black youth's well-being. Consequently, they are often assumed to “naturally” engage culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP), obscuring the diverse ways Black individuals identify, think, and behave regarding race and culture. This psychological survey study examines in-service Black educators’ ( N = 238) multidimensional racial identity attitudes, background sociodemographics, and education contexts (postsecondary and current/teaching) in relation to their varied enactments of three CRP domains ( African American Curriculum, Culturally Relevant Teaching, Sociopolitical Commitment). Results show CRP variation across individuals according to their racial identity attitudes, backgrounds, and contexts. The resulting conceptual framework advances research and discourse on teacher race by challenging homogenizing, detrimental narratives. Findings have important implications for teacher workforce diversification, training, and retention.

Self-reported Racial Discrimination and Healthy Behaviors in Black Adults Residing in Rural Persistent Poverty Areas.

Racism is a social determinant of health inequities and associated with poorer health and health behaviors. As a domain of racism, self-reported racial discrimination affects health through unhealthy behaviors (e.g., smoking) but the understudied impact of self-reported racial discrimination's relationship with healthy behaviors (e.g., cancer screening) precludes a comprehensive understanding of racism's impact on health inequities. Understanding how self-reported racial discrimination impacts healthy behaviors is even more important for those living in rural persistent poverty areas (poverty rates of 20% or more of a population since 1980), who have a higher disease burden due to poverty's interaction with racism. The distinct sociocultural context of rural persistent poverty areas may result in differential responses to self-reported racial discrimination compared to those in non-persistent poverty areas. A community-engaged process was used to administer a survey to a convenience sample of 251 Black adults residing in 11 rural persistent poverty counties in the state of Arkansas. Self-reported racial discrimination, fruit and vegetable intake, colorectal cancer screening, cervical cancer screening, and screening mammography were assessed. Stress and religion/spirituality were also assessed as potential mediators or moderators in the relationship between self-reported racial discrimination and healthy behaviors. In adjusted models, those reporting more self-reported racial discrimination had a higher probability of having had a test to check for cervical cancer (situation discrimination: OR = 1.23, 95% CI: 1.04-1.5; frequency discrimination: OR = 1.06, 95% CI: 1.02-1.12). Stress and religion/spirituality were not significant mediators/moderators. Greater self-reported racial discrimination was associated with a higher odds of cervical cancer screening. Black adults residing in rural persistent poverty areas may have greater self-reported racial discrimination-specific coping and racial identity attitudes.

Concordant and Discordant Patterns of Parental Racial Socialization among Biracial Black-White Adolescents: Correlates and Consequences.

Multiracial-Black youth are one of the fastest-growing populations in the U.S., but little is known about their racialized developmental experiences. This study uses Latent Profile Analysis to identify patterns of parental racial socialization among Biracial Black-White adolescents and explore whether those profiles relate to demographics and racial identity outcomes. The sample consisted of 330 Biracial Black-White adolescents living in the U.S. (67% boys; Mage = 14.8, SD = 1.5). The analysis yielded a four-profile solution based on (1) the frequency of socialization messages youth received and (2) the concordance of those messages across both of their parents (i.e., whether socialization frequency is similar or different between Black and white parents). Profile membership differed based on youth gender and racialized appearance (i.e., whether youth presented physically as Black, white, or racially ambiguous). Ultimately, adolescents in the profile with the highest frequency and concordance of parental racial socialization reported more adaptive racial identity attitudes including a sense of pride in being Black and Biracial. Youth in that profile also felt the most comfortable navigating the intersections of their racial identities, which coupled with racial pride has promising implications for their development and wellbeing.

The Mediating Role of Self-Leadership in the link between Racial Identity Attitudes, Mental Health Outcomes, and Race Related Stress

ABSTRACT Introduction: Internal Family Systems (IFS) Therapy has grown in popularity over the last several decades, demonstrating promising utility, especially in the treatment of mood disorders. However, IFS researchers have yet to explore its relevance specifically for Black populations in the United States. Objective: The present study investigated relationships between self-leadership, racial identity attitudes, race related stress, and mental health outcomes. Specifically, this study examined self-leadership as a potential mediator in the relationship between Black racial identity attitudes and the experience of race-related stress and mental health outcomes Methods: Participants (N = 79) were Black-identifying undergraduate students who completed self-report inventories. Mediation analyses were conducted using SPSS. Results: Self-leadership significantly predicted less severe negative mental health outcomes. Additionally, self-leadership fully mediated the relationship between the pre-encounter attitude of self-hatred and mental health outcomes, and self-leadership partially mediated the relationship between multiculturalist inclusive attitudes and stress due to institutional racism. Conclusion: Findings point to the potential utility of a major component of IFS, self-leadership, for future Black clinical populations.

An investigation of the relationship between school counselor trainees’ broaching behavior and their racial identity attitudes

AbstractThis study examined the relationship between the racial identity attitudes and broaching behavior in a sample of 198 trainees matriculating in school counseling programs. Respondents completed the Broaching Attitudes and Behavior Survey, the Cross Ethnic‐Racial Identity Scale‐Adult, Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and a demographic survey. Findings demonstrated that trainees with lower levels of racial identity functioning (RIF) endorsed Avoidant broaching attitudes and behaviors, and trainees with higher levels of RIF endorsed more Infusing broaching attitudes and behaviors.

African American Activism: The Predictive Role of Race Related Stress, Racial Identity, and Social Justice Beliefs

Historically, African American activism has played a pivotal role in advancing social change in the United States. As such, there is an interest in examining possible factors that may engender activism among African Americans. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to extend research by Szymanski and Lewis (2015), which explored potential predictors of activism among African Americans. With a sample of 458 African American undergraduates, race-related stress, racial identity dimensions, and social justice variables were examined. A four-stage, multiple linear hierarchical regression model and two multiple mediation bootstrap analyses were employed. Race-related stress and racial identity attitudes significantly and uniquely predicted involvement in African American activism, complementing existing literature. Beyond that, social justice beliefs predicted African American activism over and above racial identity and race-related stress. More specifically, social justice subjective norms (i.e., social influence) was the most important predictor of activism for African American undergraduates. Implications for social justice development within institutions of higher education are discussed.

Black Girl Blues: The Roles of Racial Socialization, Gendered Racial Socialization, and Racial Identity on Depressive Symptoms among Black Girls.

Racial socialization is an important predictor of wellbeing among Black youth. Scholars have theorized that Black girls could benefit from gendered racial socialization or messages about being Black girls. However, this has not been examined empirically. The current study investigates the role of general and gendered racial socialization and racial identity attitudes on depressive symptoms among 287 Black girls between the ages of 13-17 (Mage = 15.4) in the U.S. Path analysis results demonstrated that general and gendered racial socialization about pride were directly associated with positive feelings about being Black which were negatively associated with depressive symptoms. Oppressive messages about Black women were related to negative feelings about being Black and more depressive symptoms. The implications of general and gendered racial socialization on the psychological wellbeing of Black girls are discussed.

Examining the Association Between Racial Identity Attitudes and Coping With Racism‐Related Stress

The authors examined the association between racial identity attitudes and coping with racism‐related stress among Asian, Black, and Latinx college students (N = 195). Results of the canonical correlation analysis indicated that higher scores on a combination of all racial identity attitudes were significantly associated with greater active coping for Black and Latinx students. Among Asian students, the authors found that higher scores on conformity, dissonance, and immersion‐emersion racial identity attitudes were significantly associated with greater avoidant coping.Los autores examinaron la asociación entre las actitudes de identidad racial y el afrontamiento del estrés relacionado con el racismo en estudiantes universitarios asiáticos, negros y latinxs (N = 195). Los resultados del análisis de correlación canónica indicaron que unos valores más altos en la combinación de todas las actitudes de identidad racial estaban asociados significativamente a un mayor afrontamiento activo en estudiantes negros y latinxs. En estudiantes asiático‐americanos, los autores hallaron que unos valores más altos en las actitudes de identidad racial de conformidad, disonancia e inmersión/emersión estaban asociados significativamente a un mayor afrontamiento evasivo.

Developing a Cultural Immersion Service-Learning Experience for Undergraduate Nursing Students.

Cultural consciousness is a central element of purposeful and appropriate health care delivery. Research suggests that cultural consciousness is strengthened through self-reflection, dialogue about race, and experience within other cultures. Two cohorts of senior-level nursing students participated in a 1-week cultural immersion service-learning (CISL) experience in an isolated, rural American Indian community. Student reflections and White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (WRIAS) data were collected and analyzed. The CISL experience facilitated culturally conscious care in two thirds of the participating nursing students. Differences in WRIAS scores were statistically significant (p < .0001) with an effect size of 1.9. Implementing CISL experiences into the undergraduate curriculum may help nursing students recognize societal privilege and improve cultural consciousness. Recommendations are provided to assist nurse educators to develop partnerships with indigenous nations, which make CISL experiences possible. [J Nurs Educ. 2019;58(2):117-120.].

Race and Stereotypes Matter When You Ask About Conduct Problems: Implications for Violence Risk Assessment in Juvenile Justice Settings

We examined the impact of stigma priming on self-reported severe conduct problems in two studies conducted with African American adolescents involved in the juvenile justice system. Data-collection interviews were conducted in a secure detention setting following arrest. In Study 1 ( N = 193), stigma was primed by manipulating the ordering of surveys. Adolescents who completed a questionnaire about racial identity attitudes prior to questions about severe conduct reported substantively more problematic behaviors than control group peers (β = 0.43). In Study 2 ( N = 264), stigma was primed by manipulating whether adolescents were interviewed by an African American or European American mental health professional. Racial group membership of the interviewer did not have a substantial effect on self-reported conduct problems (β = −0.04). Although the studies were not without limitations, they highlight the need for more research on the degree to which interview methods and context influence self-reported severe conduct behavior in forensic settings.

Black Adolescent Males: Intersections Among Their Gender Role Identity and Racial Identity and Associations With Self-Concept (Global and School).

Intersectional approaches for understanding identity have gained momentum in the social sciences. Black adolescent males are often perceived as threatening, underachieving, and hypermasculine, which is reinforced through media outlets and psychological research that portray them as a monolith rather than a heterogeneous group with multiple intersecting identities. This cross-sectional study of 70 Black adolescent males between 14 and 18years old simultaneously explores their race and gender identities and associations with self-concept (global and school). Results demonstrated that participants reported a combination of feminine and masculine gender roles, rather than hypermasculine. A canonical correlation analysis found that Black racial identity attitudes (RIAS-L) and gender roles simultaneously contributed to significant relationships with total and school self-concept. Study limitations and future directions for research and practice are discussed.

Am I My Sister’s Keeper? Linking Domestic Violence Attitudes to Black Racial Identity

This exploratory online investigation sought to examine the links between African American college women’s gender role attitudes, Black racial identity attitudes, and domestic violence attitudes toward African American women in heterosexual marital relationships where domestic violence occurs ( N = 192). Less sophisticated Black racial identity attitudes (i.e., pre-encounter and immersion-emersion) predicted greater self-reports of justifying domestic violence toward African American women and believing that African American women benefit from abuse. Pre-encounter and immersion-emersion attitudes also predicted less willingness to help victims. An Afrocentric worldview (i.e., internalization Afrocentricity) was positively predictive of believing that African American women benefit from domestic violence as well as greater willingness to help victims. Appreciating one’s African American identity and other racial and ethnic groups (i.e., internalization multiculturalist inclusive) predicted less justification, fewer reports that African American women benefit from abuse, and a greater willingness to help victims. Post hoc mediation analyses revealed that gender role attitudes and an investment in protecting African American male domestic violence perpetrators (i.e., Black male victimage and justification beliefs) mediated the link between internalization Afrocentricity attitudes and the belief that African American women benefit from abuse.

Exploring the Relations Between Religious Orientation and Racial Identity Attitudes in African College Students

As the Black African college student population increases across U.S. college campuses, helping professionals are encouraged to more clearly understand the unique identity developmental needs of these students in order to fortify their academic endeavors and contribute to their success. Both religion and race are powerful forces that shape identity, providing an overall sense of purpose, a feeling of connection with others, and a sense of community. Yet, both of these aspects of identity are rarely studied in Black African college student populations. This study examined the relations between religious orientation and racial identity attitudes in 49 Black African college students, whose diverse racial, ethnic, and religious experiences have been understudied. The results from multiple regression analyses indicated that religious orientation was significantly related to racial identity status. Specifically, intrinsic religious orientation was positively related to preencounter (i.e., pro-White, anti-Black beliefs about one’s own racial group) racial identity attitudes, quest religious orientation was positively related to immersion-emersion (i.e., anti-White, pro-Black attitudes about one’s own racial-cultural group) racial identity attitudes, and the relations between intrinsic religious orientation and internalization (i.e., internalized positive self-acceptance) racial identity attitudes approached significance. Recommendations for future research and implications for diversity in higher education are discussed.

The Effects of Stigma Priming on Forensic Screening in African American Youth

In the present study, we examined the effect of stigma priming on a psychological screening in two separate experiments with African Americans who had juvenile court contact. Results of the first experiment showed that asking adolescents to state their racial group membership had no effect on self-reported internalizing and externalizing behaviors. In the second experiment, adolescents primed by making racial identity attitudes salient reported higher levels of oppositional defiant, depressive, and anxiety symptoms, but not conduct disordered behavior, when compared with peers in a control group. Three racial identity profiles were identified: (a) Miseducation-Pro-Black, (b) Low Race Salience, and (c) Multiculturalist. Only the Low Race Salience profile was shown to be associated with stigma priming vulnerability in a forensic mental health screening.

Ethnic group differences in racial identity attitudes, perceived discrimination and mental health outcomes in African American, Black Caribbean and Latino Caribbean college students

The increasing presence of Black Caribbean and Latino Caribbean college students in higher education settings requires helping professionals to more clearly understand their unique racial identity developmental needs and experiences with discrimination in order to fortify their academic endeavors and contribute to their success. A series of 3 × 2 ANOVAs and MANOVAS were conducted to examine ethnic group differences in racial identity attitudes, perceived racial discrimination and mental health outcomes in 159 African American, Black Caribbean and Latino Caribbean college students in an urban college setting in the Northeast USA. Results indicated that dissonance and immersion racial identity status attitudes were significantly linked to perceived racial discrimination and depression for all participants. Findings also showed a main interaction effect between ethnicity and racial identity conformity attitudes and mental health outcomes with high conformity linked to increased perceived stress for Latino Ca...

Supplemental Material for Measurement Invariance of the People of Color Racial Identity Attitudes Scale With Asian Americans

Supplemental Material for Measurement Invariance of the People of Color Racial Identity Attitudes Scale With Asian Americans

African Americans and Trayvon Martin: Black Racial Identity Profiles and Emotional Responding

Public opinion polls suggest that many African Americans viewed the death of Trayvon Martin as a race-related event (Gabbidon and Jordan 2013; Pew Research Center 2013). This exploratory online investigation examined African Americans’ general reactions to the fatal shooting of Trayvon Martin as well as the link between Black racial identity cluster profiles and race-related stress reactions (i.e., anger and sense of safety). Participants had a range of reactions, including questioning whether the shooting was racially motivated as well as self-reporting anger and sadness. Three Black racial identity profile groups were identified. Profile group 1 consisted of individuals with each of the different Black racial identity attitude types being below the mean (i.e., undifferentiated). Group 2 consisted of individuals with lower levels of centrality and nationalist ideologies with all other racial identity types being above the mean (i.e., integrationist). Finally, group 3 consisted of individuals with a positive African American identity as indicated by greater levels of centrality, private regard, and nationalist ideology (i.e., race focused). Only their public regard, assimilationist and humanist ideology attitudes fell below the mean. Further analysis indicated that individuals with a race focused Black racial identity cluster profile specifically self-reported higher levels of anger and were more likely to indicate feeling unsafe after learning about Trayvon Martin’s death.

Game Changers: The Role Athletic Identity and Racial Identity Play on Academic Performance

The purpose of this study was to examine the degree to which athletic and racial identity predict the academic outcomes of Black student athletes participating in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1 Football Bowl Series football. The academic outcomes of Black student athletes are a growing concern to both scholars and practitioners focused on improving the student athlete experience at this elite level of college sports. Results of this study indicate higher measures of athletic identity predict lower GPA. The racial identity attitude measures did not emerge as direct predictors of GPA in this study. Study findings and the implications for student athlete practitioners and future research are discussed.