Racial Disparities In Birth Outcomes Research Articles

Leveraging the Fetal and Infant Mortality Review (FIMR) Process to Advance Health Equity.

The fetal and infant mortality review (FIMR) process is a community-oriented strategy focused on improving the health services systems for pregnant persons, infants, and their families. FIMR helps communities to understand and change systems that contribute to racial disparities in birth outcomes. FIMR equally values the medical and social services delivery records and the personal narratives of families who have suffered a fetal or infant loss when creating the de-identified case summaries to be reviewed by teams. A two-tiered process, FIMR uses a multidisciplinary Case Review Team (CRT) as the information processor and the Community Action Team (CAT) as the action arm of the process. Pediatricians are vital to both teams, helping to bring about systems change to improve maternal and child health. This paper examines how the well-established FIMR team serving Indianapolis (Marion County, IN) worked to build the capacity of its CAT to address racial disparities in birth outcomes through 5 distinct steps: focus on the primary causes of local fetal or infant mortality, focus on neighborhoods with the highest stable fetal or infant mortality rates, designation of a CAT leader, creation of a culture of regular CAT meetings inclusive of a health-equity skill building curriculum, and inclusion of Grassroots Maternal and Child Health Leaders on the CAT. This paper demonstrates how the synergy between local organizations and community members can effectively address racial disparities in birth outcomes.

Exposure to Crime and Racial Birth Outcome Disparities.

Urban communities in the United States were transformed at the end of the twentieth century by a rapid decline in neighborhood crime and violence. We leverage that sharp decline in violence to estimate the relationship between violent crime rates and racial disparities in birth outcomes. Combining birth certificate data from US counties with the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting statistics from 1992 to 2002, we show that lower crime rates are associated with substantially smaller Black-White disparities in birth weight, low birth weight, and small for gestational age. These associations are stronger in more segregated counties, suggesting that the impacts of the crime decline may have been concentrated in places with larger disparities in exposure to crime. We also estimate birth outcome disparities under the counterfactual that the crime decline did not occur and show that reductions in crime statistically explain between one-fifth and one-half of the overall reduction in Black-White birth weight, LBW, and SGA disparities that occurred during the 1990s. Drawing on recent literature showing that exposure to violent crime has negative causal effects on birth outcomes, which in turn influence life-course outcomes, we argue that these results suggest that changes in national crime rates have implications for urban health inequality.

Gendered Racism in Pregnancy and Stress Among Women in the United States During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Abstract: High stress experienced during pregnancy increases risk for adverse birth outcomes such as low birthweight and preterm birth that occur disproportionately among women of color in the United States. Prior research has identified a distinct form of discrimination, gendered racism in pregnancy (GRiP), that likely elevates stress and is suspected to contribute to racial disparities in birth outcomes among American women. We investigated associations of GRiP experiences and distress with two types of stress, pregnancy related and pandemic related, among 2,995 pregnant women in the United States at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, a time when health care restrictions, social contact limitations, and concerns about COVID-19 infection created added stress for pregnant women. Using data collected online during the second US pandemic surge (December 2020), we found that pregnant self-identified Hispanic/Latina ( n = 233), Non-Hispanic/Latina Black/African American ( n = 182), and Multiracial/Other ( n = 201) women experienced greater GRiP and greater stress of both types than Non-Hispanic/Latina White women. Structural equation modeling indicated a strong association of racial/ethnic identity with prenatal stress that was mediated by GRiP, independent of other contributors to prenatal stress. Focusing on the harmful impact of gendered racism coupled with culturally informed individual interventions and change at multiple societal levels and institutions may help reduce the poorer reproductive outcomes that are disproportionately common among communities of color in the United States. Addressing and alleviating discrimination can improve reproductive justice for all who choose to give birth throughout the world, regardless of their race, ethnicity, nationality, or other identities.

Association of Medicaid expansion with birth outcomes: evidence from a natural experiment in Texas

BackgroundEmpirical evidence on the effects of Medicaid expansion is mixed and highly state-dependent. The objective of this study is to examine the association of Medicaid expansion with preterm birth and low birth weight, which are linked to a higher risk of infant mortality and chronic health conditions throughout life, providing evidence from a non-expansion state, overall and by race/ethnicity.MethodsWe used the newborn patient records obtained from Texas Public Use Data Files from 2010 to 2019 for hospitals in Texarkana, which is located on the border of Texas and Arkansas, with all of the hospitals serving pregnancy and childbirth patients on the Texas side of the border. We employed difference-in-differences models to estimate the effect of Medicaid expansion on birth outcomes (preterm birth and low birth weight) overall and by race/ethnicity. Newborns from Arkansas (expanded Medicaid in 2014) constituted the treatment group, while those from Texas (did not adopt the expansion) were the control group. We utilized a difference-in-differences event study framework to examine the gradual impact of the Medicaid expansion on birth outcomes.ResultsMedicaid expansion was associated with a 1.38-percentage-point decrease (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.09–2.67) in preterm birth overall. Event study results suggest that preterm births decreased gradually over time. Medicaid expansion was associated with a 2.04-percentage-point decrease (95% CI, 0.24–3.85) in preterm birth and a 1.75-percentage-point decrease (95% CI, 0.42–3.08) in low birth weight for White infants. However, Medicaid expansion was not associated with significant changes in birth outcomes for other race/ethnicity groups. ConclusionsOur findings suggest that Medicaid expansion in Texas can potentially improve birth outcomes. However, bridging racial disparities in birth outcomes might require further efforts such as promoting preconception and prenatal care, especially among the Black population.

Changes in Residential Greenspace and Birth Outcomes among Siblings: Differences by Maternal Race.

Growing research investigates the perinatal health benefits of greenspace in a mother's prenatal environment. However, evidence of associations between residential greenspace and birth outcomes remains mixed, limiting the relevance this work holds for urban policy and greening interventions. Past research relies predominantly on cross-sectional designs that are vulnerable to residential selection bias, and rarely tests effect modification by maternal race/ethnicity, which may contribute to heterogeneous findings. This study uses a rigorous, longitudinal sibling comparison design and maternal fixed effect analyses to test whether increases in maternal exposure to residential greenspace between pregnancies precede improved birth outcomes among non-Hispanic (NH) white (n = 247,285) and Black (n = 54,995) mothers (mean age = 28 years) who had at least two consecutive live births in California between 2005 and 2015. Results show that increases in residential greenspace correspond with higher birthweight (coef. = 75.49, 95% CI: 23.48, 127.50) among Black, but not white (coef. = -0.51, 95% CI: -22.90, 21.90), infants. Additional analyses suggest that prior evidence of perinatal benefits associated with residential greenspace among white mothers may arise from residential selection; no such bias is observed for Black mothers. Taken together, these findings support urban greening initiatives in historically under-resourced neighborhoods. Efforts to evenly distribute residential greenspace may reduce persistent racial disparities in birth outcomes, an important step towards promoting health equity across the life course.

Rates of Preterm Birth and Low Birth Weight in an Adolescent Obstetric Clinic: Achieving Health Equity Through Trauma-Informed Care.

Adolescents who are pregnant and identify as Black are exposed to more societal harms that increase their and their offspring's risk for poor health outcomes. The Colorado Adolescent Maternity Program (CAMP) offers comprehensive, multidisciplinary (medical, behavioral health, nutrition, case management), trauma-informed obstetric care to pregnant adolescents to ensure the healthiest pregnancy and birth possible and pursue health equity. The present study aimed to examine ethnic and racial disparities in preterm birth and low birth weight before and after implementation of a trauma-informed model of care. Participants were 847 pregnant adolescents (ages 12-22 years; 41% self-identified as Hispanic, 32% as non-Hispanic Black, 21% as non-Hispanic white) who received prenatal treatment-as-usual (TAU) or trauma-informed treatment. Demographic information, mental health symptoms, and birth outcomes were abstracted from medical records. Overall, findings provided support that implementation of a trauma-informed model of prenatal care led to equitable birth outcomes across racial and ethnic groups. Specifically, Black adolescents in the TAU group were more than twice as likely to deliver preterm or low birth weight infants compared with white and Hispanic adolescents. In the trauma-informed group, however, there were no statistical differences in birth outcomes across racial/ethnic groups, indicating an elimination of disparities in both preterm birth and low birth weight in this population. These more equitable birth outcomes occurred even in the context of adolescents of color having reported more severe depression symptoms postimplementation. These findings provide evidence that a health system-level intervention, herein trauma-informed obstetric care for adolescents, can play a meaningful role in the reduction of racial disparities in birth outcomes.

Pursuing Research Justice Through Community-Academic Partnership to Address Racial Disparities in Preterm Birth.

The California Preterm Birth Initiative is a community-engaged research effort focused on addressing racial disparities in birth outcomes. To highlight three community-academic partnership strategies and identify partners' lessons learned and recommendations. We conducted interviews (n = 38), four focus groups (n = 23), a document review (n = 174), and meeting/event observations (n = 36). We performed content analysis and structural and emerging coding of the data, which involved extracting and sorting information into themes. Five themes emerged across the strategies as essential for successful partnerships addressing racial disparities: 1) incorporate a racial equity approach; 2) value community knowledge; 3) ensure accountability to community priorities; 4) build relationships and trust; and 5) address structural barriers to community-academic partnerships. Community-academic partnerships addressing racial health disparities should confront internal and structural power dynamics early on and support affected communities to lead the efforts, including committing to funding and capacity-building activities to ensure research justice.

Disparities by race/ethnicity in unplanned cesarean birth among healthy nulliparas: a secondary analysis of the nuMoM2b dataset

BackgroundRacial disparities exist in maternal morbidity and mortality, with most of these events occurring in healthy pregnant people. A known driver of these outcomes is unplanned cesarean birth. Less understood is to what extent maternal presenting race/ethnicity is associated with unplanned cesarean birth in healthy laboring people, and if there are differences by race/ethnicity in intrapartum decision-making prior to cesarean birth.MethodsThis secondary analysis of the Nulliparous Pregnancy Outcomes Study: Monitoring Mothers-to-Be (nuMoM2b) dataset involved nulliparas with no significant health complications at pregnancy onset who had a trial of labor at ≥ 37 weeks with a singleton, non-anomalous fetus in cephalic presentation (N = 5,095). Logistic regression models were used to examine associations between participant-identified presenting race/ethnicity and unplanned cesarean birth. Participant-identified presenting race/ethnicity was used to capture the influence of racism on participant’s healthcare experiences.ResultsUnplanned cesarean birth occurred in 19.6% of labors. Rates were significantly higher among Black- (24.1%) and Hispanic- (24.7%) compared to white-presenting participants (17.4%). In adjusted models, white participants had 0.57 (97.5% CI [0.45–0.73], p < 0.001) lower odds of unplanned cesarean birth compared to Black-presenting participants, while Hispanic-presenting had similar odds as Black-presenting people. The primary indication for cesarean birth among Black- and Hispanic- compared to white-presenting people was non-reassuring fetal heart rate in the setting of spontaneous labor onset.ConclusionsAmong healthy nulliparas with a trial of labor, white-presenting compared to Black or Hispanic-presenting race/ethnicity was associated with decreased odds of unplanned cesarean birth, even after adjustment for pertinent clinical factors. Future research and interventions should consider how healthcare providers’ perception of maternal race/ethnicity may bias care decisions, leading to increased use of surgical birth in low-risk laboring people and racial disparities in birth outcomes.

Neighborhood Incarceration Rates and Adverse Birth Outcomes in New York City, 2010-2014

The US has high rates of adverse birth outcomes, with substantial racial disparities augmented by stress and neighborhood disadvantage. Black people are more likely to live in neighborhoods with high rates of incarceration, which is a source of both stress and neighborhood disadvantage and, thus, may contribute to adverse birth outcomes. To determine whether neighborhoods with high incarceration rates also have higher rates of adverse birth outcomes compared with neighborhoods with lower rates. This cross-sectional study used publicly available data from the New York City Department of Health (2010-2014). Censored Poisson regression, with the US Census tract as the unit of analysis, was used to examine the association of neighborhood incarceration rate and birth outcomes. Multivariable models included percentage of births aggregated to the Census tract by maternal factors (age, parity, singleton vs multiple birth, insurance, and race) and neighborhood factors (poverty, education, and violent crime). Analyses were performed between May 2021 and October 2022. Neighborhood incarceration rate, categorized into quintiles. The primary outcome was the incidence rate ratio (IRR) of preterm birth and low birth weight. Secondary outcomes were IRRs of very preterm birth, extremely preterm birth, and very low birth weight. Hypotheses were formulated before data collection. Among 2061 Census tracts with 562 339 births, incarceration rates varied from 0 to 4545 people incarcerated per 100 000, and high-incarceration neighborhoods had more residents of Black race (54.00% vs 1.90%), living in poverty (32.30% vs 10.00%), and without a general educational development equivalent (28.00% vs 12.00%) compared with low-incarceration neighborhoods. In fully adjusted models, high-incarceration neighborhoods had a 13% higher IRR of preterm birth (IRR, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.08-1.18), 45% higher IRR of very preterm birth (IRR, 1.45; 95% CI, 1.24-1.71), 125% higher IRR of extremely preterm birth (IRR, 2.25; 95% CI, 1.59-3.18), 10% higher IRR of low birth weight (IRR, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.05-1.16), and 52% higher IRR of very low birth weight compared with low-incarceration neighborhoods (IRR, 1.52; 95% CI, 1.28-1.81). Neighborhood incarceration rate was positively associated with adverse birth outcomes, particularly those associated with infant mortality. Black people were significantly more likely to live in high-incarceration neighborhoods, suggesting that mass incarceration may contribute to racial disparities in birth outcomes.

Adequacy of Prenatal Care Utilization in a Pathways Community HUB Model Program: Results of a Propensity Score Matching Analysis.

The THRIVE (Toward Health Resiliency and Infant Vitality & Equity) program aims to reduce racial disparities in birth outcomes by addressing individual risks and social determinants of health using the Pathways Community HUB model. This study examines (1) racial disparities among THRIVE participants and propensity score matched (PSM) comparisons in adequacy of prenatal care, and whether THRIVE participation (2) attenuates such disparities, and (3) improves odds of having adequate prenatal care. Birth certificate and Care Coordination Systems client data were merged for analysis. PSM was employed for 1:1 matching per birth year (2017-2020) and race for participating and non-participating first-time births in Stark County, Ohio. Additional matching variables were age, marital status, education attainment, birth quarter, census tract poverty rate, and Women Infant & Children (WIC) enrollment. Logistic regression assessed racial differences in adequate prenatal care utilization (APNCU) and examined differences between the intervention and comparison groups on APNCU. THRIVE participants averaged more prenatal care visits and had a higher percentage of adequate care utilization than the comparison group. THRIVE program participation, educational attainment, and WIC enrollment were associated with higher odds of adequate prenatal care utilization (OR 4.74; 95% CI 2.62, 8.57). Race was not significant for APNCU. Although accessing and maintaining prenatal care is only one aspect of improving birth outcomes, the findings contribute to the understanding of the effects of the program of interest and other similar programs on factors which may promote desired birth outcomes in high-risk populations.

RACIAL DISPARITIES IN MATERNAL AND NEONATAL OUTCOMES IN STATES WITH AND WITHOUT IN VITRO FERTILIZATION (IVF) INSURANCE MANDATES

The impact of IVF insurance mandates on racial disparities in birth outcomes is unclear. We examined racial disparities in maternal and neonatal outcomes among individuals who conceived via assisted reproductive technology (ART) in states with mandated and non-mandated IVF coverage.

The Effects of Hurricane Matthew on Racial Disparities in Birth Outcomes

The Effects of Hurricane Matthew on Racial Disparities in Birth Outcomes

Biomarkers of pre-pregnancy allostatic load and subsequent adverse birth outcomes

Racial disparities in birth outcomes are seemingly intractable. Using person-centered methods and drawing from the life course and Weathering Hypothesis literatures, we used data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to group non-Hispanic White and non-Hispanic Black women ages 24–34 into latent classes based on pre-pregnancy biomarkers of allostatic load. Stratified analyses yielded four latent classes among non-Hispanic White women, characterized by: 1) high blood pressure, 2) high body mass index and waist circumference, 3) high total cholesterol and triglycerides, and low high-density lipoprotein, and 4) low-risk, and two latent classes among non-Hispanic Black women, characterized by: 1) high body mass index and waist circumference, and moderate-risk blood pressure, hbA1c, and c-reactive protein, and 2) low-risk. Allostatic load class membership and other maternal- and infant-level covariates were then included simultaneously as predictors of three separate dichotomous outcomes: preterm birth, macrosomia, and low birth weight in multilevel logistic regression models. In a separate multilevel linear regression model, the same variables were simultaneously entered to predict continuously measured birthweight. In multilevel, multivariate models, White women in the high-risk body mass index and waist circumference class, as compared to the high-risk blood pressure class, had infants with higher birthweights. Other comparisons were not significant or not of meaningful magnitude. Prioritizing temporality so that allostatic load measurement preceded first birth likely biased the composition of the analytical sample. Additional research is needed to help medical providers and public health practitioners understand the complex biological and social mechanisms underlying inequities in birth outcomes and identify prevention strategies.

Racial disparities in birth outcomes following assisted reproduction

Racial disparities in adverse birth outcomes are well known. We examined the differences in the association between race/ethnicity and adverse birth outcomes between women who conceived spontaneously and those who used non-invasive assisted reproduction (nART), e.g., fertility drugs; and invasive assisted reproduction (iART), e.g., in-vitro-fertilization. A population-based retrospective cohort study, including data on all singleton (N=7,545,805) and twin (N=260,183) births in the USA, 2016-2017, from the National Centre for Health Statistics. Logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) and to assess statistical significance of the interaction between race/ethnicity and mode of conception (both self-reported). Twin births were analyzed separately. In women with singletons, assisted reproduction was used among 69778 (1.7%) non-Hispanic white women, 4669 (0.4%) African-American, 11124 (2.1%) Asian, and 7680 (0.4%) Hispanic women. AORs are shown in Tables 1&2. The largest increase in racial disparity was observed in neonatal mortality among women who used iART; African-American women had 4.4-fold higher risk compared with non-Hispanic white women (AOR=4.4, 95% CI 3.0-6.4), while this risk was 2-fold in the spontaneous conception group (AOR=1.9, 95% CI 1.8-2.0). In twins, assisted reproduction was used in 25,886 (17.4%) non-Hispanic white twins, 2004 (4.2%) African-American, 4198 (1.6%) Asian, and 3346 (24.8%) Hispanic twins. Twin results were similar, but slightly attenuated. Disparity in selected maternal morbidity was not different across the groups. Racial disparities in adverse perinatal outcomes among women who conceived spontaneously were aggravated in women who conceived by assisted conception. In particular, the disparity in neonatal mortality between African-American and non-Hispanic white women with ART was 2-fold larger than the disparity in those who conceived spontaneously. More research is needed to identify specific preventive measures after assisted conception among racial/ethnic minority women.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)

Perspectives of Doulas of Color on their Role in Alleviating Racial Disparities in Birth Outcomes: A Qualitative Study.

The purpose of this study was to explore how doulas of color conceptualize both their work and how their racial and ethnic identities influence their work within the context of racial disparities in birth outcomes in the United States. We conducted semistructured qualitative interviews with doulas of color who had attended at least 3 births as doulas. Participants were recruited from across the United States. The interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. Qualitative content analysis was used to derive themes from the transcribed interviews. Interviews were conducted with 8 doulas of color, ranging in age from 21 to 47 from across the United States. All participants were either current college students or had earned a college degree. Although many of the doulas identified as being of more than one racial or ethnic group, nearly all participants identified closely with being Black or African American first, and their other racial groups second. Four major themes emerged: relationship with the medical system, role of identity in the doulas' work, role of class, and divisions within the natural birth movement. The majority of doulas who participated in this study stated that their racial identity strongly influenced their work, particularly when working with women of the same race or ethnicity due to their shared identities. Several participants initially became doulas because of a desire to alleviate disparities in birth outcomes for women of color. This suggests a commitment on the part of the study participants to serving their communities and to bridging the gap between women of color and the health care system. Several participants also noted that they feel alienated by both the health care system and the mainstream natural birth community.

Unfolding Birth Justice in Settler States

AbstractThere is growing scholarly and public attention toward the stark racial disparities in birth outcomes in the US. To lower disparate rates of Indigenous and Black infant mortality rates and maternal mortality rates, public and elected officials have proposed extending comprehensive prenatal care and medical resources and addressing racial biases in healthcare delivery. These efforts aim to bring minoritized and marginalized peoples and communities “into the fold.” In this essay, I consider the potential dangers of such contemporary efforts by critically analyzing historical initiatives to address birth outcomes and reproductive health in Indigenous communities. By foregrounding settler colonial social orders and their links to settler capitalism, I show how historical efforts to bring Indigenous peoples “into the fold” jeopardized Indigenous birth and reproductive capacities, while also upholding heteropatriarchal notions of sexuality, family, and racial difference.

Being Known: A Grounded Theory Study of the Meaning of Quality Maternity Care to People of Color in Boston.

IntroductionExperiences of people of color with maternity care are understudied but understanding them is important to improving quality and reducing racial disparities in birth outcomes in the United States. This qualitative study explored experiences with maternity care among people of color to describe the meaning of quality maternity care to the cohort and, ultimately, to inform the design of a freestanding birth center in Boston.MethodsUsing a grounded theory design and elements of community‐based participatory research, community activists developing Boston's first freestanding birth center and academics collaborated on this study. Semistructured interviews and focus groups with purposefully sampled people of color were conducted and analyzed using a constant comparative method. Interviewees described their maternity care experiences, ideas about perfect maternity care, and how a freestanding birth center might meet their needs. Open coding, axial coding, and selective coding were used to develop a local theory of what quality care means.ResultsA total of 23 people of color participated in semistructured interviews and focus groups. A core phenomenon arose from the narratives: being known (ie, being seen or heard, or being treated as individuals) during maternity care was an important element of quality care. Contextual factors, including interpersonal and structural racism, power differentials between perinatal care providers and patients, and the bureaucratic nature of hospital‐based maternity care, facilitated negative experiences. People of color did extra work to prevent and mitigate negative experiences, which left them feeling traumatized, regretful, or sad about maternity care. This extra work came in many forms, including cognitive work such as worrying about racism and behavioral changes such as dressing differently to get health care needs met.DiscussionBeing known characterizes quality maternity care among people of color in our sample. Maternity care settings can provide personalized care that helps clients feel known without requiring them to do extra work to achieve this experience.

Does Increasing Access to Prenatal Care Reduce Racial Disparities in Birth Outcomes?

PurposeTo examine the effectiveness of early and adequate prenatal care (PNC) in reducing racial disparities in pre-term birth (PTB) among low-income women. Design and methodsThis retrospective study examined birth records for 14,950 low-income Black and White women. The primary outcome of interest was racial disparities in PTB. Exposures of interest were first trimester entry into, and adequacy of, PNC. Maternal residential proximity to nearest PNC provider was calculated. Bivariate analyses were performed for PTB by race. Binary logistic regression was performed, controlling for maternal age, smoking status and racial segregation. Attributable risk of PTB for no or late entry into PNC, and percent difference by race was calculated. ResultsWe find that early and adequate PNC significantly decreases the risk of preterm birth, however, we find no evidence that this reduces racial disparities. Low income black females in a large metropolitan county have greater geographic access to and utilization of PNC than low-income white females, yet racial disparities in preterm birth remain. Attributable risk of PTB for no or late entry into PNC was lower for Black women (32.2%) than White women (39.4%). ConclusionsOur findings suggest that adequate PNC alone does not reduce the marked racial disparities in preterm birth. Practice implicationsPublic health agencies and health care providers need to look beyond access to care, to achieve racial equity in birth outcomes. Expansion of evidence-based, comprehensive nursing interventions shown to reduce preterm birth, such as the Nurse Family Partnership home visiting program, could contribute to these efforts.

Protective Factors using the Life Course Perspective in Maternal and Child Health

The life course perspective (LCP), a valuable theoretical framework for investigating racial disparities in birth outcomes, examines the cumulative exposure of risk and protective factors throughout the life span. Although risk and protective exposures are equally vital to health, most studies have focused solely on the risk factor exposures faced by vulnerable populations. In clear contrast to the traditional public health approach, which emphasizes a deficit model, strengths-based approaches focus on protective factors and fostering resilience. These approaches view communities as valuable assets that have the capacity to fully engage themselves and their residents to achieve optimal health. Participatory action research methods are well suited to apply a strengths-based approach to understand health disparities. Our study aimed to explore maternal and child health protective factors from community residents' perspective. A group of researchers, including active members in the community with a long history of grassroots development work, conducted ten community-based participatory focus groups with community residents in Tampa, FL, using the LCP framework. A total of 78 residents participated in ten focus groups. Perceived protective factors during pregnancy included self-esteem, spirituality, pregnancy support, good nutrition, prenatal care, and community resources. Protective factors for non-pregnant women were self-esteem, spirituality, social support, health literacy, community support and community resources, and societal factors. For children and adolescents, relevant protective factors were self-esteem, positive role models, nutrition and physical activity, and community support. The identified factors are community assets or strengths that mitigate or eliminate maternal and child health risks in families and communities residing in low-income neighborhoods, which must be considered in developing effective maternal and child health interventions.

Direct and Vicarious Racial Discrimination at Three Life Stages and Preterm Labor: Results from the African American Women's Heart & Health Study.

Health disparities research has demonstrated a negative relationship between racial discrimination and African American women's maternal health outcomes. Yet, the relationship between racial discrimination and preterm labor, a key measure of maternal health, remains understudied. This study sought to examine the associations between preterm labor and direct and vicarious racial discrimination among African American women at three life stages: childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Logistic regression methods were used to analyze cross-sectional data from the African American Women's Heart & Health Study (AAWHHS; N = 173). The AAWHHS includes detailed maternal health information on a community sample of African American women residing in the San Francisco Bay Area. Findings indicated each unit increase in adolescent direct racial discrimination was associated with a 48% increase in the odds of preterm labor (OR: 1.480, 95% CI 1.002-2.187, p < 0.05) and each unit increase in childhood vicarious racial discrimination was associated with a 45% increase in the odds of preterm labor (OR: 1.453, 95% CI 1.010-2.092, p < 0.05) after adjusting for number of pregnancies and socioeconomic variables. This study provides evidence of an association between life-stage racial discrimination and preterm labor risk among African American women, underscoring a need to consider how both directly and vicariously experienced racial discrimination at different developmental periods impact racial disparities in birth outcomes.