Race-related Experiences Research Articles

Motivators and Barriers to COVID-19 Vaccination Intentions Across U.S. County-Level Barriers in the COVID-19 Vaccine Coverage Index.

County-level barriers (sociodemographic barriers, limited healthcare system resources, healthcare accessibility barriers, irregular healthcare seeking behaviors, low vaccination history) may impact individuals' reasons for receiving the COVID-19 vaccine. This study linked data from REACH-US (Race-Related Experiences Associated with COVID-19 and Health in the United States), a nationally representative, online survey of 5475 adults living in the U.S (January-March 2021) to county-level barriers in the COVID-19 Vaccine Coverage Index. County-level vaccination barriers were measured using the COVID-19 Vaccine Coverage Index. Participants reported why they would or would not receive the COVID-19 vaccine in an open-ended item and their responses were coded using thematic analysis. Descriptive statistics and chi-square tests assessed whether reasons for COVID-19 vaccination intentions varied by county-level barriers and whether these distributions varied across racial/ethnic groups. Thematic analysis revealed twelve themes in participants' reasons why they would or would not receive the COVID-19 vaccine. Themes of societal responsibility (9.8% versus 7.7%), desire to return to normal (8.1% versus 4.7%), and trust in science/healthcare/government (7.7% versus 5.1%) were more frequently reported in counties with low/medium barriers (versus high/very high) (p-values < 0.05). Concerns of COVID-19 vaccine side effects/safety/development (25.3% versus 27.9%) and concerns of access/costs/availability/convenience (1.9% versus 3.6%) were less frequently reported in counties with low/medium barriers (versushigh/very high) (p-values < 0.05). Trends in the prevalence of these themes varied across racial/ethnic groups (p-values < 0.05). Future pandemic responses should consider potential ways county-level barriers shape reasons for COVID-19 vaccination.

"It's Tough to Be a Black Man with Schizophrenia": Randomized Controlled Trial of a Brief Video Intervention to Reduce Public Stigma.

Racial discrimination and public stigma toward Black individuals living with schizophrenia create disparities in treatment-seeking and engagement. Brief, social-contact-based video interventions efficaciously reduce stigma. It remains unclear whether including racial identity experiences in video narrative yields greater stigma reduction. We hypothesized that we would replicate findings showing sustained stigma reduction in video-intervention groups vs control and that Black participants would show greater stigma reduction and emotional engagement than non-Black participants only for a racial-insights video presenting a Black protagonist. Recruiting using a crowdsourcing platform, we randomized 1351 participants ages 18-30 to (a) brief video-based intervention, (b) racial-insights-focused brief video, or (c) non-intervention control, with baseline, post-intervention, and 30-day follow-up assessments. In 2-minute videos, a young Black protagonist described symptoms, personal struggles, and recovery from schizophrenia, with or without mentioning race-related experiences. A 3 × 3 ANOVA showed a significant group-by-time interaction for total scores of each of five stigma-related domains: social distance, stereotyping, separateness, social restriction, and perceived recovery (all P < .001). Linear mixed modeling showed a greater reduction in stigma from baseline to post-intervention among Black than non-Black participants in the racial insights video group for the social distance and social restriction domains. This randomized controlled trial replicated and expanded previous findings, showing the anti-stigma effects of a brief video tailored to race-related experiences. This underscores the importance of personalized, culturally relevant narratives, especially for marginalized groups who, more attuned to prejudice and discrimination, may particularly value identification and solidarity. Future studies should explore mediators/moderators to improve intervention efficacy.

The healing power of the village: race-related stress and coping among Black American adolescents in urban and racially homogenous communities

ABSTRACT Beyond navigating normative developmental tasks, Black American adolescents cope with race-related experiences that are distinct to their racial-ethnic group. However, little is known about how Black American adolescents, particularly those in racially homogenous communities, experience and cope with race-related stress. Using qualitative measures, this study investigates how Black American adolescents in urban, racially homogenous environments experience race-related stress and the coping methods used to combat it. Qualitative data via individual interviews with 20 high school seniors revealed that these adolescents experience race-related stress in individual, institutional, and cultural contexts, which evoked intense negative emotions. Seeking support from family and friends and social referencing positive cultural artifacts were the most widely utilized coping strategies. Implications of the protective nature of racially homogenous environments and directions for future research are discussed.

Racial uplifts and the Asian American experience.

It is well established that experiences of racial discrimination pose a significant health risk to ethnic minority youth. In this article, we introduce a new concept, racial uplifts, to capture a largely neglected countertheme in the scientific literature-the nature and processes underlying salubrious race-related experiences. We report on data from a mixed-method study of everyday racial uplifts in the lives of Asian American youth. Study 1a (n = 20; age range = 17-23 years) and Study 1b (n = 14; age range = 18-22 years) examined data collected through semistructured focus group interviews. Study 2 used data from a 14-day diary study (n = 152; age range = 16-20 years). A consensual qualitative research analysis of interview data revealed six major racial uplifting themes: (a) ethnic bonding, (b) overcoming obstacles, (c) bicultural competence, (d) cultural bridging, (e) globalism, and (f) outgroup regard. Analysis of end-of-day diary data revealed that respondents reported at least one daily racial uplift on 65% of the study days and multiple uplifts on 42% of the study days. Multilevel analyses indicated that everyday racial uplifts were associated with decreased daily negative affect and increased daily positive affect and self-esteem. The results add to a growing literature on the role of assets and promotive resources in the lives of ethnic minority youth. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Implications of built and social environments on the academic success among African American youth: testing Strong African American Families intervention effects on parental academic racial socialization.

Studies exploring widening academic disparities have highlighted the role of racialized school settings, which have given way to incidents of discrimination and unfair treatment for students of color, disproportionately affecting African American youth. Research also shows that family-based preventive interventions may avert negative outcomes for this population through the promotion of protective socialization practices. Consequently, the current study tests the efficacy of a culturally tailored preventive family-based program to foster induced changes in academic promotive parenting practices that prepare youth to advance academically by navigating negative race-related experiences in school settings. Data collected over four time periods from the Strong African American Families (SAAF) efficacy trial (Murry and Brody, 2004) with 667 African American families in rural Georgia were used for this study. Structural equation modeling analyses demonstrated that the SAAF program was associated with positive intervention induced changes in parental academic race-related socialization, which in turn, was indirectly associated with reduced school compromising behaviors through the enhancement of racial pride. While discrimination compromised academic success, our findings highlight the protective nature of racial pride in dissuading academic failure and school dropout through the promotion of academic success. This study confirms that a family-based prevention program holds promise to address academic disparities through the enhancement of parenting and youth protective processes that buffer youth from succumbing to racialized social environments such as schools. Implications for research, educational policy, and preventive interventions are discussed.

Not Just Time on Social Media: Experiences of Online Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Worse Sleep Quality for Black, Latinx, Asian, and Multi-racial Young Adults.

Sleep quality in young adulthood sets the stage for long-term health. Racial/ethnic sleep disparities between White college-attending young adults and college-attending young adults of color exist. The stress of experiencing racial/ethnic discrimination makes it difficult for college-attending young adults of color to get good quality sleep. Yet it remains unclear if experiencing online racial/ethnic discrimination also has consequences for sleep quality, and if this association may vary by frequency of social media use. To investigate the role of racial/ethnic discrimination on sleep quality, we conducted an online survey of 154 college-attending young adults (Mage = 19.51) who identified as Black (42.2%), Latinx (16.9%), Asian (20.8%), or Bi-/multi-racial (20.1%) from a predominantly White university. Results indicated that more exposure to racial/ethnic discrimination was associated with worse sleep quality for young adults of color. Results suggest that online racial/ethnic discrimination has a similar negative impact on sleep quality regardless of the frequency of social media use. Increased attention to negative race-related experiences online as one potential risk factor for poor long-term health for young adults of color is needed, regardless of how many hours they spend on social media. Structural interventions, screening for stress due to exposure to online racial/ethnic discrimination, and facilitating opportunities to prepare for this exposure may be an important priority for sleep health and reduction of racial/ethnic health disparities.

“Our Community Is So Small”: Considering Intraracial Peer Networks in Black Student Adjustment and Belonging at PWIs

Although Black students may share race-related experiences at predominantly White institutions (PWIs), they are a heterogeneous community with diverse identity beliefs, goals, and expectations about college. In the current study, we foreground how Black students at PWIs understand their racialized identities in relation to one another and within the broader university context. Drawing from interview data with 32 Black undergraduate students, we explore intraracial academic and social norms at two PWIs, with a particular focus on how students’ intersectional identities inform their relationships and experiences with other Black students. We add to the growing literature that actively challenges the homogenization of Black student populations and discuss how intraracial norms contribute to students’ campus adjustment and sense of belonging.

A threatening opportunity: The prospect of conversations about race-related experiences between Black and White friends.

Similarities are foundational to building and maintaining friendships, but for cross-race friends, differences in experiences related to race are also inevitable. Little is known about how friends approach talking about race-related experiences. We suggest that these conversations are a threatening opportunity. Across five studies, we show that they can enhance closeness and intergroup learning among Black and White friends but that these benefits can be accompanied, and sometimes prevented by identity threat. In Study 1, Black (N = 57) and White (N = 59) adults anticipated both benefits and risks of such conversations, though more benefits than risks. In Study 2A (N = 143) and Study 2B (N = 149), Black participants reported less willingness to disclose race-related experiences to extant White friends than Black friends and anticipated feeling less comfortable doing so, controlling for closeness. However, they also desired to be understood by Black and White friends equally. In Study 3 (N = 147) and Study 4 (N = 172), White participants also felt less comfortable when an imagined Black friend disclosed race-related versus nonrace-related experiences to them. However, they felt closer to their friend after the race-related disclosure. Additionally, they felt more comfortable hearing about race-related experiences from a friend than through a third party and they reported learning more when the race-related experience was a friend's than a stranger's. Taken together, the studies highlight the benefits as well as the risks of conversations about race for cross-race friends and the need for future studies that track real-time conversations and test strategies to help friends engage in these conversations productively. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Mexican-origin 5-year-old children's ethnic-racial identity centrality and attitudes predicting social functioning.

Early childhood is an important developmental period to focus on the outcomes associated with ethnic-racial identity (ERI) given that children notice racial differences, are processing information about ethnicity and race, and have race-related experiences. The present study tested whether three components of ERI (i.e., positive attitudes, negative attitudes, and centrality) predicted children's social functioning (i.e., interactive, disruptive, and disconnected play with peers; externalizing behaviors; and observed frustration and cooperation with an adult). Child sex was also tested as a moderator. The present study included 182 5-year-old Mexican-origin children (57% male) of mothers who entered parenthood during adolescence (M = 21.95, SD = 1.00). Children's positive ethnic-racial attitudes were associated with greater social functioning (i.e., greater interactive play and less externalizing behaviors) among boys and girls, and less frustration among boys. Negative ethnic-racial attitudes predicted maladaptive social functioning (i.e., greater disruptive play) among boys and girls and more disconnected play among girls. Contrary to expectations, ethnic-racial centrality predicted boys' and girls' maladaptive social functioning (i.e., greater disruptive and disconnected play). Findings highlight the importance of fostering children's positive ethnic-racial attitudes and helping them discuss and cope with negative ethnic-racial attitudes to promote more adaptive social functioning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Use of Critical Race Theory to Understand the Experiences of an African American Male During School Psychology Graduate Education

This study used an exploratory case study approach to explore the race-related experiences of a Black male specialist level school psychology graduate student. We used the CRT tenets of racism as normal and permanent and intersectionality and antiessentialism to help us make sense of the findings. Findings revealed that race and racism did not negatively impact the case study participant’s experiences within his school psychology program at the university. However, racism was pervasive during his internship year, as it influenced interactions with white teachers and parents. Implications for school psychology graduate education are discussed, including the need for school psychologists to actively engage behaviors that disrupt systems of oppression like racism if the profession is to meet its antiracist aims. Impact Statement This case study uses Critical Race Theory to help us make sense of a Black male’s experiences in a school psychology program. Findings showed the participant did not perceive his race or racism as a barrier to relationships with program peers or faculty, but racism negatively impacted his experience at his field-based internship sites. Implications suggest the need for school psychology graduate programs to enroll students who are inclusive and open to engaging racial issues, faculty who engage culturally-responsive mentoring practices, and the presence of school psychologists of color as university professors and supervisors in PK–12 schools.

50.11 Reported Discrimination Predicts Biomarkers of Adverse Medical Outcomes Using Machine Learning Methodology

Within the past decade, there has been increased attention to the relationship between stress, its physical manifestations, and complex psychosocial, interpersonal interactions. One such stressor that has been shown to significantly impact is the experience of perceived discrimination for members of African American (AA) communities. Racial trauma (or race-based stress response) is defined as the traumatic response to negative race-related experiences that are collectively characterized as racism, including acts of prejudice, discrimination, or violence against a subordinate racial group. Consistently, it has been shown that African Americans are among the hardest hit by this sociopolitical phenomenon, racism, in the United States. For African Americans, the experience of racism has been linked to earlier onset (and greater prevalence) of disability, reduced life expectancy, and various cardiometabolic, neurological, or mental health disorders than any other racial or ethnic minority group in the United States. In this study, we are interested in utilizing machine-based learning methodologies to investigate if such intrinsic factors, such as perceived prejudice or discrimination in childhood/adolescence, are predictive of poorer health outcomes in adulthood. Utilizing the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) dataset, we utilized a recursive feature elimination regression analysis to investigate the relationship between reported discrimination and potential biomarkers of adverse health outcomes in adulthood. We found that reported discrimination was predictive of elevated levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) (R2 = 0.2579), increased BMI, in adulthood. Our findings are proof of concept that machine learning methodology can be applied to large datasets to understand the potential health consequences of racial disparities in a hypothesis-free manner.

Parenting despite discrimination: Does racial identity matter?

Previous research suggests that parents' characteristics and race-related experiences shape the racial socialization messages they give their children. Parents' beliefs about race may also relate to how they interpret and respond to race-related stressors. The current study drew on the Sociohistorical Integrative Model for the Study of Stress in Black Families to examine the moderating roles of gender and racial identity subscales (i.e., racial centrality, private regard, and public regard) on the relations between race-related stressors (i.e., personal, vicarious, and anticipated racial discrimination) and racial socialization. Path analyses were conducted in Mplus 8.2 using online survey data from a national sample of 567 African American parents of adolescents. There were seven significant three-way interactions. Racial centrality and gender moderated the relations between both personal and vicarious racial discrimination and each racial socialization message. Private regard and gender moderated the relations between personal racial discrimination and preparation for bias and between vicarious racial discrimination and cultural socialization. Public regard and parent gender moderated the relation between personal racial discrimination and cultural socialization. The findings highlighted that parents' experiences of personal, vicarious, and anticipated racial discrimination have different relations with their racial socialization messages. In addition, they highlighted that racial identity and parent gender are related to the type of racial socialization messages African American parents who are exposed to race-related stressors give their children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Supplemental Material for A Threatening Opportunity: The Prospect of Conversations About Race-Related Experiences Between Black and White Friends

Supplemental Material for A Threatening Opportunity: The Prospect of Conversations About Race-Related Experiences Between Black and White Friends

Differentiating competency from content: Parental racial socialization profiles and their associated factors.

For Black parents, the racial socialization (RS) process represents a critical parenting practice. Although the field has historically focused on the content of parents' RS, it is also important to consider caregivers' perception of their competence to effectively teach their children to navigate their racialized world. The present study investigated patterns of RS by exploring 332 Black caregivers' report of both content and competency. Using Latent Profile Analysis (LPA), we identified three profiles of RS: Multifaceted & More Competent (MMC), Unengaged & Moderately Competent (UModC), and Negative, Stressed, & Less Competent (NSLC). Additionally, we explored the role of several previously established correlates of parental RS, including sociodemographic factors (i.e., age, gender, and socioeconomic status), caregiving status (e.g., mother, father, and aunt), and parents' race-related experiences (i.e., history of RS, racial identity, and experiences with racial discrimination). Generally, the NSLC profile consisted of caregivers who were younger than those in the other two profiles, while those in the UModC profile tended to have younger children, relatively. Interestingly, caregivers in the UmodC profile reported receiving significantly less RS in childhood and experienced less racial discrimination than those in the other two profiles. Numerous differences were found across profiles for dimensions of racial identity. The emergence of these varied profiles, as well as the identification of factors that differentiated them, extends our understanding of RS and highlights the importance of considering parents' notions of feeling confident, skillful, and less stressed as they navigate such a vital developmental process for their children.

"Don't you care about the well-being of your race?": African American couples discuss racial differences involving criticisms of other Black people.

African American couples have unique racial stress and high relationship instability, although few studies have examined the role of racial stressors in their relationships. This qualitative study used grounded theory to examine 10 African American couples' disagreements about criticisms of other Black people. Each couple completed a standard couple problem-solving task modified to focus solely on racial differences between the partners. Two models of couple relationships framed the approach; the general vulnerability-stress-adaptation model (Karney & Bradbury, Psychol. Bull., 118, 1995, 3) was combined with a comprehensive race-focused model (Bryant et al., J. Fam. Theory Rev., 2, 2010, 157). The goal was to understand racial stress faced by African Americans, including its context, how and why it is stressful, how they cope, and its consequences in their relationship. A tentative model emerged, suggesting that some African Americans have early race-related experiences that make them vulnerable to concerns about how Black people are seen by others. This may result in a unique minority status stressor that appears indicative of internalized stereotypes and may often include gendered criticisms of their partners. Partners seem to adapt by looking to other African Americans to take personal responsibility for their behavior and defending their racial group. Black male-female gender role issues appear to emerge as a consequence of racial stress that also seems salient across all aspects of the model. Future studies can further examine culturally specific models involving African Americans' criticisms of other Black people and identify successful couple-level strategies to overcome internalized oppression.

Between and within race differences in patient-centeredness and activation in mental health care

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to compare Black and White mental health care patients’ perceptions of their providers’ and their own participation in patient-centered mental health care. Perceptions of patient-centered care (PCC) in relation to the Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity were explored. MethodsBlack and White veterans receiving mental health care (n = 82) completed surveys assessing patient activation, involvement in care, perceptions of PCC, and therapeutic alliance. Black participants (n = 40) also completed the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity. ResultsThere were no differences by race in perceived PCC, though Black participants had lower levels of therapeutic alliance with their mental health care provider and were less activated. Black identity centrality, private regard, and public regard were positively related to PCC and elements of PCC such as patient information seeking/sharing. ConclusionsIntragroup identity variables such as racial centrality, regard, and ideology influenced perceived PCC among Black participants. Race identity variables should be explored in future research on racial disparities and PCC. Practice implicationsMental health care providers serving Black patients should create opportunities to discuss racial identity and race-related experiences as part of their efforts to improve therapeutic alliance and increase the patient-centeredness of care.

Asian Americans Experience Microassaults During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Microaggressions are typically brief and common behavioral/verbal indignities that communicate a sense of hostility, derogatory, or negative perception towards a targeted group. During the COVID-19 pandemic, we observed an increase in the amount of microassaults, a more intentional type of microaggression, towards the Asian American population. In our study, we used a two-way 2x2 (Race: Asian Americans vs. White Americans; Time: before vs. during COVID-19) analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with repeated measures on one factor (Time) to determine whether there was a statistical significance between race in the experiences of microassaults before and during COVID-19. We used a self-report survey method to gather data from the participants. Overall, the findings from our study suggest that Asian Americans experienced an increase of microassaults during COVID-19 compared to before the pandemic. Moreover, this change in experiences over time was significantly different for White Americans. This study shows the importance of recognizing this phenomenon, and addresses the issues on inclusivity, cultural-awareness, and compassion. Moving forward, it is important that we are aware of social influences on race-related experiences among Asian Americans, and other marginalized communities.

Churning races in Canada: Visible minority response change between 2006 and 2011

Why do most people have stable responses to census race questions, while some do not? Using linked Canadian data, we examine personal, social, and economic characteristics that predict response stability as White or as one of six large visible minority groups, versus a change in response to/from White or to/from another visible minority group. Response change rates in Canada are generally comparable to those in the US, UK, and New Zealand. Likely reflecting the centuries-old hegemony of Whites in these countries, White is the most stable response group in Canada as well as the US, UK, and New Zealand. Multiple-race response groups are among the newest and least stable response groups. Social statuses and experiences (mixed ethnic heritage, immigration status, and exposure to own-group members) are generally more predictive of race response stability and change than economic (income level and change in income) or personal statuses (education, age). This highlights the socially-constructed nature of race group boundaries. Joining and leaving a group are often predicted by the same status/characteristic and in the same direction, hinting that the status/characteristic adds complexity to the race-related experiences of constituents.

The experience of sport tourists at the Formula 1 Singapore Grand Prix: an exploratory analysis of user-generated content

This study examined the experiences of sport tourists at the Formula One (F1) Singapore Grand Prix. In addition, the study also examined the difference in experiences between the genders and between local and international tourists. Three hundred and forty-seven reviews on TripAdvisor were captured and analysed. The initial analysis showed seven themes: ‘race’, ‘track’, ‘event’, ‘concerts’, ‘cars’, ‘food’ and ‘walk’. Further analysis uncovered differences between the genders and between local and international tourists. Specifically, male tourists were more likely to comment on race-related matters. On the other hand, female tourists’ experiences were focused on entertainment activities with family and friends during the event. In addition, locals were more focused on race-related experiences while international tourists commented on enjoyable experiences with local food and people during the event. The findings of this study gained insights into the marketing of the F1 Singapore Grand Prix from the tourists’ perspective.

The behavioural self-regulation strategies of Indian South African university students: An exploratory study

This study explored the race-related self-regulation strategies of eight Indian South African university students (females: n = 4) attending a historically white university. Interactive qualitative analysis of their race-related experiences revealed that the students felt that they had been judged as being different, which resulted in overwhelming unwanted emotions, primarily anger and sadness. Moreover, the students reported the use a range of self-regulation strategies (such as introspection, engaging with trusted others, managing the situation, tolerating the experience of being judged, and making friends with people from other races) in a specific sequence to enhance their social acceptance on the campus. The findings suggest that adaptive self-regulation may enhance the social outcomes of historically disadvantaged, racial minority students.