Quercus Mongolica Forest Research Articles

The Adaptive Mechanism of Ginseng Rhizomes in Response to Habitat Changes

Panax ginseng, a perennial medicinal plant, utilizes its dried roots and rhizomes for medicinal purposes. Currently, in China, ginseng cultivation employs two methods: under-forest and farmland planting. These methods create distinct habitats, significantly influencing the ginseng’s rhizome morphology and, consequently, its economic value. In this study, two-year-old ginsengs were transplanted into farmland (TCG), a larch forest (TLCG) and a Quercus mongolica forest (TQCG) to analyze the differences in rhizome phenotypes caused by habitat changes. The results showed that there were significant differences in light intensity and the soil’s available phosphorus and potassium contents between farmland and forest environments. The differences in habitats led to different adaptability of the ginseng’s rhizome morphology. Compared with TCG, the rhizomes of TLCG and TQCG were significantly elongated by 48.36% and 67.34%, respectively. After the rhizomes’ elongation in TLCG and TQCG, there was an increase in indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) contents and a decrease in lignin contents. By analyzing the expression of key genes, we found that, compared with TCG, the expression of key enzymes of lignin biosynthesis genes such as PgCOMT and PgCCR4 were down-regulated. The difference in ginseng’s rhizome length is related to the signal transduction pathway of auxin and gibberellin. In addition, we preliminarily screened out transcription factors PgWRKY75, PgDIV, and PgbHLH93.1, which can actively respond to habitat changes and play important roles in the elongation of ginseng rhizomes. In summary, this study elucidates the phenotypic plasticity strategy of ginseng rhizomes in response to habitat changes and delineates the regulatory mechanism behind phenotypic adaptation, offering novel insights into ginseng’s morphogenesis.

Phytosociological characteristics of Betula davurica–Quercus crispula forests in Japan based on a comparison with summergreen broad-leaved forests in Northeast Asia

Betula davurica and deciduous Quercus forests are among the principal forest types in Northeast Asia. They are found throughout continental Northeast Asia and in some mountainous regions of Central Honshu and eastern Hokkaido in the Japanese Archipelago. B. davurica–Quercus crispula forests in Japan are significant for understanding the phytogeography of Japan and Northeast Asia. However, their relationships with B. davurica–Quercus mongolica forests in continental Northeast Asia remain poorly understood. We compared the species composition of B. davurica–Q. crispula forests of Japan, with those of Q. crispula dominant forests and B. davurica–Q. mongolica forests using phytosociological methods. The results suggested that B. davurica–Q. crispula forests of Japan had a significant number of species common to the order Lespedezo bicoloris–Quercetalia mongolicae and the class Querco mongolicae–Betuletea davuricae in continental Northeast Asia than in other associations in Japan. Furthermore, our results showed that associations between B. davurica and Q. crispula forests in Central Honshu and Hokkaido are related to different orders in continental Northeast Asia. The relations of the associations between Japan and the continent are considered to have been caused by the environmental similarities, the histories of taxa, and the changes in vegetation distribution.

The effects of forest types and age groups on forest provisioning and supporting service value in Sanhu Nature Reserve, Northeast China

The promotion of forest resource protection and sustainable development relies greatly on the value of forest ecosystem services. In Jilin Songhuajiang Sanhu National Nature Reserve in Northeast China, a total of 169 sample plots were examined and analyzed to evaluate the provisioning and supporting services provided by the forest ecosystem. The study revealed that the near-mature and over-mature Fraxinus mandshurica forest have relatively high timber supply and species resources conservation values per unit area, respectively. Furthermore, the mature Betula platyphylla forest has the highest forest nutrient retention value, while the near-mature Juglans mandshurica forest has the highest soil conservation value, with the nitrogen fixation value accounting for the highest proportion. The forest ecosystem services in the reserve have a total value of 659.07 million $⋅y–1. The main contributors to the value are the services of soil fertilizer conservation, timber supply, and species resources conservation, with the mixed broad-leaved forest and Quercus mongolica forest being the main contributors, accounting for 63.1 and 18.8% of the total value, respectively. Nonetheless, the service value of per unit area in J. mandshurica forest is the highest. Near-mature and mature forests are the main contributors to the total value, accounting for 42.3 and 34.9%, respectively. Forest lands exhibit significant variations in the values of provisioning and supporting services across different stand types and age groups.

Community Structure and Growth Rate of Korean Quercus mongolica Forests by Vegetation Climate Zone

Q. mongolica forests are representative forest types in Korea, belonging to the intermediate succession stage with the highest species diversity. Identifying the community structure and growth rate of Q. mongolica forests by the vegetation climate zone can help in planning efficient forest restoration strategies for each vegetation climate zone. The proportions of major communities based on the vegetation climate zones newly adjusted by the Korea National Arboretum in 2020 were determined. Major dominant species were identified in Quercus mongolica forests in which Q. mongolica dominates by more than 50% by analyzing the importance based on the basal area of the trees using data from the 7th National Forest Inventory Survey. The basal area growth rate was analyzed for permanent sample plots from the 5th to 7th National Forest Inventory Surveys. The analysis revealed statistically significant differences in the basal area growth rate by vegetation climate zone over a 10-year period. However, it should be noted that Q. mongolica forests with younger age classes were more abundant in the warm southern temperate zone; thus, it is likely that age class has a greater effect on the rate of basal area increase than the vegetation climate zone.

Effect of prescribed burning on the small-scale spatial heterogeneity of soil microbial biomass in Pinus koraiensis and Quercus mongolica forests of China

Prescribed burning can alter soil microbial activity and spatially redistribute soil nutrient elements. However, no systematic, in-depth studies have investigated the impact of prescribed burning on the spatial patterns of soil microbial biomass in temperate forest ecosystems in Northeast China. The present study investigated the impacts of prescribed burning on the small-scale spatial heterogeneity of microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) in the upper (0–10 cm) and lower (10–20 cm) soil layers in Pinus koraiensis and Quercus mongolica forests and explored the factors that influence spatial variations of these variables after prescribed burning. Our results showed that, MBC declined by approximately 30% in the 10–20 cm soil layer in the Q. mongolica forest, where there were no significant effects on the soil MBC and MBN contents of the P. koraiensis forest (p > 0.05) after prescribed burning. Compared to the MBC of the Q. mongolica forest before the prescribed burn, MBC spatial dependence in the upper and lower soil layers was approximately 7% and 2% higher, respectively. After the prescribed burn, MBN spatial dependence in the upper and lower soil layers in the P. koraiensis forest was approximately 1% and 13% lower, respectively, than that before the burn, and the MBC spatial variability in the 0–10 cm soil layer in the two forest types was explained by the soil moisture content (SMC), whereas the MBN spatial variability in the 0–10 cm soil layer in the two forests was explained by the soil pH and nitrate nitrogen (NO3–-N), respectively. In the lower soil layer (10–20 cm) of the Q. mongolica forest, elevation and ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N) were the main factors affecting the spatial variability of MBC and MBN, respectively. In the 10–20 cm soil layer of the P. koraiensis forest, NO3–-N and slope were the main factors affecting the spatial variability of MBC and MBN, respectively, after the burn. The spatial distributions of MBC and MBN in the two forests were largely structured with higher spatial autocorrelation (relative structural variance C/[C0 + C] > 0.75). However, the factors influencing the spatial variability of MBC and MBN in the two forest types were not consistent between the upper and lower soil layers with prescribed burning. These findings have important implications for developing sustainable management and conservation policies for forest ecosystems.

Russula quercina, a new species of Russula subsect. Integroidinae (Russulaceae, Russulales) from the Quercus mongolica forest in Heilongjiang Province, China

Russula quercina sp. nov. (sect. Polychromidia, subsect. Integroidinae) from a Quercus mongolica forest in Northeast China is described. This new species is recognized by its coral pink and glabrous pileus, slightly yellowish context, yellow basidiospore print, and abundant cystidia in stipitipellis and pileipellis. The morphological characteristics are illustrated in detail and are compared with morphologically similar species, R. integriformis, and R. laeta. Russula quercina identification is supported by molecular phylogenetic analyses based on the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS) in the ribosomal DNA.

The community composition variation of Russulaceae associated with the Quercus mongolica forest during the growing season at Wudalianchi City, China.

BackgroundMost species of the Russulaceae are ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi, which are widely distributed in different types of forest ecology and drive important ecological and economic functions. Little is known about the composition variation of the Russulaceae fungal community aboveground and in the root and soil during the growing season (June–October) from a Quercus mongolica forest. In this study, we investigated the changes in the composition of the Russulaceae during the growing season of this type of forest in Wudalianchi City, China.MethodsTo achieve this, the Sanger sequencing method was used to identify the Russulaceae aboveground, and the high-throughput sequencing method was used to analyze the species composition of the Russulaceae in the root and soil. Moreover, we used the Pearson correlation analysis, the redundancy analysis and the multivariate linear regression analysis to analyze which factors significantly affected the composition and distribution of the Russulaceae fungal community.ResultsA total of 56 species of Russulaceae were detected in the Q. mongolica forest, which included 48 species of Russula, seven species of Lactarius, and one species of Lactifluus. Russula was the dominant group. During the growing season, the sporocarps of Russula appeared earlier than those of Lactarius. The number of species aboveground exhibited a decrease after the increase and were significantly affected by the average monthly air temperature (r = −0.822, p = 0.045), average monthly relative humidity (r = −0.826, p = 0.043), monthly rainfall (r = 0.850, p = 0.032), soil moisture (r = 0.841, p = 0.036) and soil organic matter (r = 0.911, p = 0.012). In the roots and soils under the Q. mongolica forest, the number of species did not show an apparent trend. The number of species from the roots was the largest in September and the lowest in August, while those from the soils were the largest in October and the lowest in June. Both were significantly affected by the average monthly air temperature (r2 = 0.6083, p = 0.040) and monthly rainfall (r2 = 0.6354, p = 0.039). Moreover, the relative abundance of Russula and Lactarius in the roots and soils showed a linear correlation with the relative abundance of the other fungal genera.

Deduction of a meteorological phenology indicator from reconstructed MODIS LST imagery

Phenology is a valuable attribute of vegetation to assess the biological impacts from climate change. A challenge of phenological research is to obtain information on both high temporal resolution and fine spatial scale observations. Here, we constructed an air temperature map based on temporal merging and spatial interpolation algorithms to overcome the cloud-related problem from the MODIS LST product. Then, we derived the accumulated growing degree days (AGDD) from the constructed mean air temperature map to use as a meteorological indicator. Further, we verified the indicator with the seasonal mean air temperature and the green-up date of a Quercus mongolica forest determined from the field-based measurements. The AGDD threshold for each Q. mongolica forest when the first leaf has unfolded was detected from the EXG trajectory extracted from digital camera images. A comparison between meteorological and MODIS-derived AGDD showed good agreement between them. There was also high consistency between DoYs extracted from AGDD and EVI based on curvature K for Q. mongolica forests of 30 sampling sites throughout South Korea. The results prove that microclimatic factors such as elevation, waterbody, and land-use intensity were faithfully reflected in the reconstructed images. Therefore, the results of this study could be applied effectively in areas where microclimatic variation is very severe and for monitoring phenology of undergrowth, which is difficult to detect from reflectance imaging.

Community structure characteristics and spatial distribution of dominant species of secondary Quercus mongolica forest in Changbai Mountains, China.

Understanding forest community structure is the basis for revealing community maintenance mechanism and succession dynamics, and the premise forest management activities. Taking two permanent 1-hm2 plots of Quercus mongolica broadleaved mixed forest located in Wangqing Fore-st Bureau in Jilin Province as objects, we analyzed the community structure characteristics of secondary Q. mongolica forest and spatial distribution of dominant species with the point pattern analysis method (the O-ring statistics). The results showed that both plots were dominated by Q. mongo-lica with distinct hierarchy character. The co-dominated trees in plot I were Populus ussuriensis, Be-tula platyphylla, and Pinus koraiensis, which were different from plot II (Tilia amurensis, Acer mono, and Pinus koraiensis). The richness and Shannon index of plot I were higher than that of plot II. The DBH class distribution of trees in both plots were reverse-J-shaped. Individuals of Q. mongolica exhibited a normal distribution and P. koraiensis showed a reverse-J-shaped. There were differences in the diameter structure of other co-dominant tree species. The spatial distribution of Q. mongolica in two plots was aggregation distribution at small scale and random distribution in medium and large scales. P. koraiensis showed aggregation-random distribution at 0-50 m scale, while its aggregation degree in plot I were higher than that of plot II. B. platyphylla and P. ussuriensis in plot I were aggregated at the scale of 0-17 m, and the aggregation intensity was significantly higher than other tree species, and showed random distribution and uniform-random distribution at the scale of 18-50 m, respectively. Random or uniform distribution at the medium-large scale, and aggregate distribution at small scale of T. amurensis were observed in plot II. These results demonstrated that both plots were at the primary stage of succession with different growth stages. The succession stage of plot II was more progressed than that of plot I and the community of plot II was relatively more stable. Our results provide references for the precise management of Q. mongolica secondary forests at different developmental stages.

Responses of soil invertebrates to different forest types in the Changbai Mountains of China

ABSTRACTSoil invertebrates can potentially respond to variation of soil and vegetation in a timely manner, yet the relationships between soil invertebrates to the forest ecosystem remain a matter of debate. In order to better understand the responses of soil invertebrates to different forest types in the temperate forest ecosystem, a total of 450 soil invertebrates’ samples were collected from 5 forest types, namely primeval coniferous broad-leaved mixed forests, secondary coniferous broad-leaved mixed forests, secondary broad-leaved forests, secondary Quercus mongolica forests, and secondary shrub forests in spring, summer, and autumn. The results revealed that the distribution patterns of soil invertebrates differed among the forests, and the taxonomic compositions of soil invertebrates slightly varied among the different forest types in the Changbai Mountains, yet high similarities exist in the soil invertebrates’ communities. Seasonal variation in the abundance and richness of soil invertebrates was observed, though no significant differences were detected among the seasons. Hypogastruridae were more suitable for the forest types with relatively higher levels of canopy cover. Furthermore, soil invertebrates responded mostly to soil temperature and moisture (RV = 0.44, p = 0.02), available nutrients (RV = 0.42, p = 0.04), and minerals (RV = 0.39, p = 0.04). Overall, the findings of this study provide evidence that different forest types affect the distribution patterns of soil invertebrates, but the responses of soil invertebrates to forest types differed between their taxa.

Effect of micro-environment in ridge and southern slope on soil respiration in Quercus mongolica forest

BackgroundSoil respiration (Rs) is a major factor of the absorption and accumulation of carbon through photosynthesis in the ecosystem carbon cycle. This directly affects the amount of net ecosystem productivity, which affects the stability and sustainability of the ecosystem. Understanding the characteristics of Rs is indispensable to scientifically understand the carbon cycle of ecosystems. It is very important to study Rs characteristics through analysis of environmental factors closely related to Rs. Rs is affected by various environmental factors, such as temperature, precipitation, soil moisture, litter supply, organic matter content, dominant plant species, and soil disturbance. This study was conducted to analyze the effects of micro-topographical differences on Rs in forest vegetation by measuring the Rs on the ridge and southern slope sites of the broadly established Quercus mongolica forest in the central Korean area.MethodRs, Ts, and soil moisture data were collected at the southern slope and ridge of the Q. mongolica forest in the Mt. Jeombong area in order to investigate the effects of topographical differences on Rs. Rs was collected by the closed chamber method, and data collection was performed from May 2011 to October 2013, except Winter seasons from November to April or May. For collecting the raw data of Rs in the field, acrylic collars were placed at the ridge and southern slope of the forest. The accumulated surface litter and the soil organic matter content (SOMC) were measured to a 5 cm depth. Based on these data, the Rs characteristics of the slope and ridge were analyzed.ResultsRs showed a distinct seasonal variation pattern in both the ridge and southern slope sites. In addition, Rs showed a distinct seasonal variation with high and low Ts changes. The average Rs measurements for the two sites, except for the Winter periods that were not measured, were 550.1 mg CO2 m−2 h−1 at the ridge site and 289.4 mg CO2 m−2 h− 1 at the southern slope, a difference of 52.6%. There was no significant difference in the Rs difference between slopes except for the first half of 2013, and both sites showed a tendency to increase exponentially as Ts increased. In addition, although the correlation is low, the difference in Rs between sites tended to increase as Ts increased. SMC showed a large fluctuation at the southern slope site relative to the ridge site, as while it was very low in 2013, it was high in 2011 and 2012. The accumulated litter of the soil surface and the SOMC at the depth range of 0~5 cm were 874 g m− 2 and 23.3% at the ridge site, and 396 g m−2 and 19.9% at the southern slope site.ConclusionsIn this study, Rs was measured for the ridge and southern slope sites, which have two different results where the surface litter layer is disturbed by strong winds. The southern slope site shows that the litter layer formed in autumn due to strong winds almost disappeared, and while in the ridge site, it became thick due to the transfer of litter from the southern slope site. The mean Rs was about two times higher in the ridge site compared to that in the southern slope site. The Rs difference seems to be due to the difference in the amount of litter accumulated on the soil surface. As a result, the litter layer supplied to the soil surface is disturbed due to the micro-topographical difference, as the slope and the change of the community structure due to the plant season cause heterogeneity of the litter layer development, which in turn affects SMC and Rs. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce and understand these micro-topographical features and mechanisms when quantifying and analyzing the Rs of an ecosystem.

Temperature sensitivity of soil heterotrophic respiration is altered by carbon substrate along the development of Quercus Mongolica forest in northeast China

Soil heterotrophic respiration was profoundly correlated with the decomposition of soil organic carbon and the global carbon balance. It was liable to be affected by temperature and carbon substrate availability. To investigate the effects of different carbon substrate inputs on organic carbon decomposition and the temperature sensitivity of soil heterotrophic respiration along the forest stand ages, we sampled surface soils (0–20 cm) from three Quercus Mongolica forest stands (20, 30 and 40 years old) in Northeast China. The microcosms were established to incubate the soil under three carbon substrate treatments (glucose, amylopectin, and the combination of glucose and amylopectin) at 13, 23, and 33 °C, respectively. The carbon substrates were 320 μmol g−1 and 40 μmol g−1 fresh soil for glucose and amylopectin, respectively. The combined treatment was 160 μmol glucose g−1 and 20 μmol amylopectin g−1 fresh soil. The results showed that rates of basal respiration (BR), substrate-induced respiration (SIR), and specific growth rate (SGR) significantly increased with the increasing forest ages. After the addition of carbon substrates, the stimulation effects of SIR and SGR were higher at 23 °C than 13 °C and 33 °C, especially the addition of amylopectin. The Q10 values of SIR were lower after the addition of glucose than those of amylopectin at lower temperature intervals (13–23 °C), but higher at higher temperatures (23–33 °C). The Q10 linearly increased with increasing rates of substrate availability. The Q10 values of SIR stimulated by amylopectin were higher at lower temperature intervals (13–23 °C), suggesting the responses of Q10 were not only adjusted by carbon substrates but also the ranges of temperature change. The exogenous stable organic carbon inputs greatly increased the Q10 values of soil heterotrophic respiration in the older forest stands. These results indicated that the decomposition of stable carbon substrate will be more sensitivity to temperature in boreal successional Quercus Mongolica forest.

Shifts in the bacterial community structure and function along a vegetation gradient in the Great Xing’an Mountains

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study was to compare soil bacterial communities in the Great Xing’an Mountains that represent three dominant vegetation types (Quercus mongolica forest, shrub mixed with herb and grassland). Soil bacterial communities were analyzed by both culture-dependent physiological profiling (Biolog) and culture-independent DNA-based approaches. The Q. mongolica forest and shrub mixed with herb had higher average well color development than the grassland, and the Q. mongolica forest and shrub mixed with herb soil bacterial communities easily utilized miscellaneous and amines/amides. The bacterial community structure was distinct across the three sites. Most of Acidobacteria, Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes were found in grassland soil, while Firmicutes was present at a higher percentage in the Q. mongolica soil. Extracellular enzyme assays indicated that the soil ecosystem in the grassland experienced altered N and P nutrient cycling dynamics. pH, available phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen were important in shaping bacterial community structure. These results suggest that vegetation type was a strong determinant of the structure and function of bacterial communities, which may subsequently lead to significant changes in ecosystem functioning.

Distribution and absorption of Organic Carbon in Quercus mongolica and Pinus densiflora Forest at Mt. Gumgang in Seosan1a

Distribution and absorption of Organic Carbon in Quercus mongolica and Pinus densiflora Forest at Mt. Gumgang in Seosan1a

Changes in composition and diversity of fungal communities along Quercus mongolica forests developments in Northeast China

A better understanding of fungal community composition and diversity and their dynamic patterns driving forces under different successional forest will contribute to the maintenance and preservation of natural ecosystems. The aim of this study was to compare soil fungal communities and soil microbial activities among three successional temperature Quercus mongolica forest stands (20, 30 and 40 years old) in Northeast China to investigate the maintenance mechanism of fungal diversity and provide the basic theory basis for the functions of fungus in nutrient cycle. Based on the sequences of rRNA with Illumina Miseq, 508 different fungal phylotypes were identified and grouped into Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota and Zygomycota. Russula was the dominant genus in these three successional stages of Q. mongolica forests. Fungal communities differed across these three stands and the fungal diversity and richness was significantly lower in the 30 years stand than in the 20 years and 40 years stands. Meanwhile, a total of 93 ectomycorrhizal fungus (EMF) phylotypes were observed and the EMF diversity was similar across the three successional stands. The activity of soil urease increased with forest development ages and cellulase activity first decreased and then increased from 20 years stand to 40 years stand. Both nitrogen mineralization and nitrification were the lowest in September in the 30 years stand and reached the maximum value in August. Both soil net N mineralization and N nitrification were the lowest in 40 years forest stage in October. The Redundance analysis showed that fungal community was strongly affected by stand ages and environmental factors and the nine plots in the three successional forest stands were significantly clustered across successional forest stands. The dominant Lachnum in Ascomycota positively, while the dominant Russula in Basidiomycota negatively, correlated with total P, available P, Soil organic carbon (SOC), NO3−-N, soil moisture or pH. Our results could provide insights into relationships between taxonomic fungal diversity and soil chemical properties along different stages of forest. The findings also imply the functions of soil fungi in sustaining soil biogeochemical cycling were driven by the secondary succession in temperate ecosystems.

Bayesian meta-analysis of regional biomass factors for Quercus mongolica forests in South Korea

Indirect approaches to estimation of biomass factors are often applied to measure carbon flux in the forestry sector. An assumption underlying a country-level carbon stock estimate is the representativeness of these factors. Although intensive studies have been conducted to quantify biomass factors, each study typically covers a limited geographic area. The goal of this study was to employ a meta-analysis approach to develop regional biomass factors for Quercus mongolica forests in South Korea. The biomass factors of interest were biomass conversion and expansion factor (BCEF), biomass expansion factor (BEF) and root-to-shoot ratio (RSR). Our objectives were to select probability density functions (PDFs) that best fitted the three biomass factors and to quantify their means and uncertainties. A total of 12 scientific publications were selected as data sources based on a set of criteria. From these publications we chose 52 study sites spread out across South Korea. The statistical model for the meta-analysis was a multilevel model with publication (data source) as the nesting factor specified under the Bayesian framework. Gamma, Log-normal and Weibull PDFs were evaluated. The Log-normal PDF yielded the best quantitative and qualitative fit for the three biomass factors. However, a poor fit of the PDF to the long right tail of observed BEF and RSR distributions was apparent. The median posterior estimates for means and 95 % credible intervals for BCEF, BEF and RSR across all 12 publications were 1.016 (0.800–1.299), 1.414 (1.304–1.560) and 0.260 (0.200–0.335), respectively. The Log-normal PDF proved useful for estimating carbon stock of Q. mongolica forests on a regional scale and for uncertainty analysis based on Monte Carlo simulation.

한국산 가송이(가칭)의 균사생장 특성과 소나무에 외생균근 형성

Tricholoma bakamatsutake is one of the edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms as an allied species of Tricholoma matsutake. This is the first report on physical characteristics of T. bakamatsutake strains collected from Quercus mongolica forests in Korea. The pure cultures of these strains were isolated from the tissues of fruit bodies and the culture characteristics were investigated under different conditions (media, temperatures, nitrogen sources). Most strains showed the highest mycelial growth on potato dextrose agar (PDA) at 20 or 25 o C. Two strains of T. bakamatsutake preferred the ammonium-form rather than the nitrate-form as an inorganic nitrogen source. T. bakamatsutake showed significantly slower mycelial growth when compared with T. matsutake from a Korean forest, although the optimum culture conditions for the two allied species were similar. We also tested the ability to form mycorrhizae as well as cellulase activity of T. bakamatsutake. All strains showed cellulase activity on a carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) agar plate. The mycorrhizae on axenic Pinus densiflora seedlings were formed by two strains of T. bakamatsutake after 3 or 8 months of inoculation. P. densiflora seedlings inoculated with T. bakamatsutake had a much higher biomass than un-inoculated seedlings.

Climatic effects on plant species distribution within the forest–steppe ecotone in northern China

AbstractQuestionsAs a narrow belt extending from the northern to the southern edges of the temperate forest zone, there is not only a strong temperature gradient and a long geographic distance but also a very sharp precipitation gradient in the temperate forest–steppe in northern China at a regional scale. Patches of forest are scattered in the steppe matrix. At the local scale, each forest patch shows a climatic gradient from patch centre to its edge and to the open steppe. How do these climatic gradients determine plant species distribution for the forest and steppe within this ecotone?LocationThe temperate forest–steppe ecotone in northern China.MethodsSpecies were recorded in paired plots of forest and steppe at 68 sites. t‐tests were conducted to show differences in floristic composition among forest types. Mantel tests were applied to correlate site‐level floristic distances with geographic and climatic distances for forest and steppe separately as well as for their combination. Floristic differences between paired plots of forest and steppe at each site were correlated to MAT, MAP and geographic factors at that site.ResultsThere was no significant floristic difference in the understorey of forests dominated by Betula platyphylla, B. dahurica or Populus davidiana. Quercus mongolica forests, however, were floristically dissimilar to the other forest types. Floristic distance of both forests and steppes were significantly correlated with ΔMAT and geographic distance, while there was a significant correlation with ΔMAP for forests only, but not for steppes. The floristic difference between forest understorey and steppe plots within each site showed no significant correlations with climatic or geographic factors.ConclusionsThe plant species distribution of both forest and steppe was more dependent on temperature than on precipitation gradients. The floristic distance between the forest understorey and steppe plots within sites seemed to depend on factors other than climate.

백두대간 조침령-신배령 구간 소나무림과 신갈나무림의 군락구조

백두대간 조침령-신배령 구간 소나무림과 신갈나무림을 대상으로 2012년 4월부터 2013년 8월까지 영구조사구(<TEX>$100m{\times}100m$</TEX>) 설치하여 조사하였다. 총 50개소의 산림식생조사 자료를 토대로 Z-M식물사회학적 방법에 의해 식생유형 분류를 수행하였던바, 최상위 수준에서 신갈나무군락군이 분류되었으며, 군락단위에서는 물푸레나무군락과 까치박달군락으로 세분되었다. 물푸레나무군락은 군단위에서 소나무군과 가래나무군으로 나누어지며, 소나무군은 다시 회나무소군과 머루소군으로 분류되었고, 까치박달군락은 시닥나무군과 사스래나무군으로 각각 세분되어, 총 5개의 식생단위로 분류되었다. 식생단위별 중요치를 분석한 결과 소나무림에서 소나무와 신갈나무의 중요치가 20%이상으로 높게 나타났으나 소나무가 신갈나무보다 상대피도가 50%이상으로 가장 높게 나타났다. 종간연관 분석결과 크게 4개의 유형으로 구분되었고, 이는 식생단위의 식별종 및 표징종과 일치하는 경향이었다. 또한 소나무림의 흉고직경급별 개체 분포에서 중간직경급에서 개체수가 가장 많은 정규분포를 나타낸 소나무와 이를 제외한 다른 수종은 직경이 커질수록 개체수가 감소하는 역 J자형의 분포유형을 나타내어 소나무림에서 신갈나무림으로 교체될 가능성이 크다 판단된다. 반면 신갈나무림에서는 신갈나무를 포함한 다른 수종 모두 역 J자형의 분포유형을 나타내어 신갈나무림은 당분간 안정된 상태로 지속될 것으로 판단되었다. The study was carried out to analyze vegetation structure of Pinus densiflora and Quercus mongolica forests located in Jochimryeong to Shinbaeryeong of the Baekdudaegan mountain range. The survey for 50 plots was conducted from April 2012 to August 2013 in the permanent plots (<TEX>$100m{\times}100m$</TEX>) using phytosociological analysis. As a result, the vegetations were classified into five vegetation units. In species composition, they were classified into Q. mongolica community group divided into 2 community such as Fraxinus rhynchophylla community and Carpinus cordata community, F. rhynchophylla community was subdivided Pinus densiflor group (into Euonymus sachalinensis subgroup, Vitis coignetiae subgroup) and Juglans mandshurica group. C. cordata community was subdivided Acer komarovii group and Betula ermanii group. In terms of importance value, P. densiflora and Q. mongolica were more than 20% respectively. P. densiflora was found to have the highest relative coverage. Analysis of interspecific association showed four types which were coincident with differential species and character species on the constancy table. Based on the diameter class distribution, P. densiflora forest presented a normal distribution pattern except for other species which showed a reverse Jshaped distribution pattern, therefore P. densiflora forest would likely be replaced by Q. mongolica forests. While in Q. mongolica forest, diameter class distribution of all species population presented a reverse J-shaped distribution pattern, therefore Q. mongolica forest could likely remain in the future.

월악산 신갈나무림의 유기탄소 분포와 순환을 통한 생태계서비스 가치평가

월악산국립공원에 발달되어 있는 신갈나무림에서 2012년 5월부터 2013년 4월까지 유기탄소 분포와 순환을 통한 생태계 서비스 가치를 파악하였다. 지상부와 지하부 생물량에 분포되어 있는 유기탄소량은 각각 81.94 및 20.53 ton C/ha 이었으며, 낙엽층과 토양의 유기탄소량은 각각 6.49 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}$</TEX>, 141.23 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}$</TEX> <TEX>$50cm-depth^{-1}$</TEX>로 조사되였다. 조사지 신갈나무림의 전체 유기탄소량은 250.19 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}$</TEX>이었으며, 이중 41.0%가 식물체에 분포하였다. 신갈나무림의 전체 유기탄소량을 원화로 환산하면 약 527만원 <TEX>$ha^{-1}$</TEX>의 가치를 갖는 것으로 추정되었다. 조사기간 동안 토양호흡을 통하여 방출되는 탄소량은 7.31 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}yr^{-1}$</TEX>으로 이중 미생물호흡과 뿌리호흡을 통해 방출되는 탄소량은 각각 3.58, 3.73 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}yr^{-1}$</TEX>이었다. 유기탄소 순 생산량과 미생물호흡량의 차이로 추정했을 때 본 신갈나무림에서 연간 대기로부터 흡수하는 순 유기탄소는 1.61 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}yr^{-1}$</TEX>로서, 이를 원화로 환산하면 약 33,000원 <TEX>$ha^{-1}$</TEX>의 가치를 갖는 것으로 추정되었다. Valuation of ecosystem services through organic carbon distribution and cycling in the Quercus mongolica forest at Mt. Worak national park were investigated from May 2012 through April 2013. The amount of carbon allocated to above and below ground biomass was 81.94 and 20.53 ton C/ha. Amount of organic carbon in litter layer was 6.49 ton C/ha. Amount of organic carbon within 50 soil depth was 141.23 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}$</TEX> <TEX>$50cm-depth^{-1}$</TEX>. Total amount of organic carbon in this Quercus mongolica forest was estimated to 250.19 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}$</TEX>. The estimated amount of won in this Quercus mongolica forest in terms of total organic carbon was about 5.27 million won <TEX>$ha^{-1}$</TEX>. The amount of carbon evolved through soil respiration was 7.31 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}yr^{-1}$</TEX>. The amount of carbon evolved through microbial respiration and root respiration was 3.58 and 3.73 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}yr^{-1}$</TEX>, respectively. The amount of organic carbon absorbed from the atmosphere of this Quercus mongolica forest was 1.61 ton C <TEX>$ha^{-1}yr^{-1}$</TEX> when estimated from the difference between net primary production and microbial respiration. This amount will come to about 33,000 won <TEX>$ha^{-1}yr^{-1}$</TEX> in Korean currency.