Amount Of Steel Research Articles

Analysis and Design of Pre-Engineered Industrial Warehouse Building with Different Standard

Over the years, pre-engineered building (PEB) has emerged as a sustainable alternative to conventional concrete construction as well as conventional steel construction. In this paper, pre-engineered industrial warehouse building will be design with different codal provision using software Staadpro and analyzed with different loads on building i.e. dead load, live load, collateral load, wind load and load combinations on building .The main objective of this study to find the optimum weight of steel quantity in building with use of different country codel provision .

Embodied impacts of key materials for UK decarbonised domestic retrofit: Differences between sources of embodied carbon and embodied energy data

Low energy domestic retrofit consumes materials, such as insulation, membranes and glazing, with smaller quantities of structural timber, steel or concrete, which have associated embodied impacts from resource extraction, manufacture and end-of-life treatments. In retrofit design, coefficients for material embodied impacts vary widely between sources and can lead to different results in a life cycle energy or carbon analysis, and perhaps different material choices in retrofit implementation. This paper considers how and why results differ between sources, and whether such data is suitable for making climate-beneficial design decisions. Embodied energy and carbon coefficients for 18 key retrofit materials were obtained from two widely used LCA databases and their similarity was quantified. The data collected illustrates that 70% embodied energy and embodied carbon data is within 20%, but that 30% of data was more than 20% different. Consistency of product naming and the absence in the datasets of key retrofit materials are factors identified contributing to variation, and present real constraints in practice. Furthermore, this exercise showed that embodied impacts for the types of materials most prominent in retrofits are less-well characterised than other major construction materials, and presents another layer of uncertainty. The data showed embodied energy was more consistent between sources than embodied carbon. This raises doubts about the predominant use of embodied carbon over energy for such analyses and establishes that a focus on embodied carbon over embodied energy has less power to reduce greenhouse gas emissions than considering both metrics together. It is concluded that obtaining such data with confidence is challenging and requires expertise in LCA, and is therefore unlikely to be accessible to most retrofit designers. Datasets need to be more complete and offer higher confidence to ensure delivery of high quality and meaningful results for climate-beneficial design decisions.

The effect of foundation type selection on approximate cost of reinforced concrete buildings: the role of soil classes and number of floors

This study investigates the choice of foundation type, which is one of the factors affecting the approximate cost of rough construction of buildings with reinforced concrete structural systems. In the study, isolated, continuous and raft foundation types are discussed comparatively for buildings with different numbers of floors (1-4 floors above the basement) and different soil classes (ZB-ZE). In the literature, there is no study in which the effects of foundation type, number of floors and soil classes on the approximate cost of a building are analyzed together. This study aims to fill this gap in this field. Reinforced concrete design and analysis were performed using Protastructure 2022 software; concrete, formwork and reinforcing steel quantities were calculated, and approximate costs were calculated with the Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change 2024 Construction and Installation Unit Prices (TCÇŞİDB 2024) and the results were presented in tables and graphs. According to the study's findings, as the soil class improves, isolated foundations are more economical than other foundations. In contrast, the cost of isolated foundations increases significantly as the soil class deteriorates and the number of floors increases, while the cost difference between continuous foundation and raft foundation decreases.

Ponašanje tijekom sloma izvana pojačanih armiranobetonskih greda s primjesom krutih vlakana

In recent decades experimental investigations on fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) laminate-strengthened reinforced concrete (RC) beams have been extensively conducted. It has been found effective in flexural and shear strengthening perspectives. On the other hand, a primary problem frequently encountered in such technique is the separation of FRP laminate with the concrete bonded surface. Such failures are due to the formation of localized flexural and otherwise shear cracks in the fragile region of the FRP-concrete interface. The debonding occurrence also significantly affects the strength enhancement of the laminated beams. The emphasis of the study is to enhance the potential performance of externally FRP strengthened RC beams by incorporating an effective crack controlling agent, that is ‘rigid hooked-end steel fibres’ in the matrix. Nine RC beams were cast and tested in this study with variables including different quantities of hooked-ends steel and glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) thickness. The pre-cracking and post-cracking behaviour of the externally FRP strengthened RC beams mixed with the short fibres were systematically evaluated and improved performance at various stages of cracking was found. Another finding is the transformation of failure pattern from brittle to ductile due to exceptional strain-hardening phenomenon caused by steel fibres in the strengthened RC beams, in comparison to that of other beams without steel fibres. The formations and propagations of the cracks at different stages were numerically modelled for all the beams using the ANSYS and compared the numerical design validation with the experiment.

Comparatively Design and Analyze Elevated Rectangular Water Reservoir with and without Bracing for Different Stagging Height

A water tank, like a container that stores liquids, are categorized based on shape studies predict the analysis and design of rectangular as well as circular overhead water tanks through the usage of STADD PRO software. Storage reservoirs, especially overhead tanks, serve the purpose of storing and distributing water to consumers. Water supply planning may not have been adequately done for the recently built Overhead Circular Tank to meet the increasing demands of the expanding urban population. Branched distribution systems could be in several scenarios, including rural irrigation and the distribution of reclaimed water. Time is approaching when the need to conserve and store water becomes so essential. In such moments, it is crucial to develop cost-effective methods for storing and distributing water. The water that is stored in overhead water tanks is strategically placed. The overhead tank is vital as it serves as a common public utility structure. The distribution to nearby areas can be done without the need for pumping!!! The cost efficiency of overhead storage water tanks relies significantly on the quantity of concrete and steel needed for tank construction. As an initial resolution to this issue, it is essential to develop a water storage project based on STAAD principles, famously known as Overhead Water Reservoir. The current study covers the analysis and design of an elevated circular water tank using STAAD.Pro V8i. The design involves manual load calculations and the analysis of the entire structure using STAAD Pro V8i. The method of design used in the STAAD.Pro analysis is Limit State Design; the water tank is being subjected to various loads such as wind load, deadload, self-weight, and hydrostatic load due to water.

Design and economic implications of using steel fibers in elevated slabs of multi‐story buildings

AbstractThis paper presents a comprehensive comparison between conventional reinforced concrete (RC) and steel fiber‐reinforced concrete (SFRC) slabs. Twenty‐two‐way rectangular RC and SFRC slabs are designed with varying dimensions, aspect ratios, and boundary conditions, following verified international standards to compare the steel quantities in a unique study. SFRC slabs with larger aspect ratios and discontinuous edges required significantly higher steel percentages than square slabs, as the random three‐dimensional distribution of steel fibers suited the load distribution pattern of square slabs. To further conduct a detailed design and economic feasibility case study on a realistic building model, two 12‐story buildings are computationally designed with RC and SFRC alternatives. The results indicate that SFRC slabs required approximately 25% more steel than RC slabs due to the uniform distribution of steel fibers throughout the section. Project cost and time estimates were conducted based on standard productivity manuals and cost databases in two distinct economies, India and the USA. Despite the higher steel requirements, the 12‐story SFRC building showed time savings of 34.1 days (5.44%) and cost savings of 4.88% and 1.27% when constructed in the USA and India, respectively. The results are compared with limited available data in literature. In conclusion, the study suggests that SFRC slabs in multi‐story buildings could be more economically favorable in countries with higher labor costs.

Optimizing Concrete Grade for a Sustainable Structural Design in Saudi Arabia

Buildings and facilities undergo several stages: the product stage, the construction stage, the use stage, the end-of-life stage, and the recycling stage. The life cycle of any facility or building contributes to embodied carbon (EC) emissions. The product stage, also known as the cradle-to-gate stage (A1–A3), registers the highest emissions, estimated to account for 70% of the total environmental impact. The continuing population growth in Saudi Arabia necessitates urgent action to identify and implement solutions for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating environmental risks. This study investigates the optimal method to analyze the grade of concrete for specific structural elements (columns) in a particular work area, adhering to accurate and methodological standards outlined in the Saudi Building Code (SBC). The bill of quantities (BOQ) determined the amount of building materials for the structure considered in this study. Reliable embedded carbon coefficients (ECCs) for structural materials such as concrete and steel were determined following life cycle assessment principles. They were analyzed using the Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE; Version 2.0) and Global Warming Potential (GWP). The obtained values varied based on the components of each mixture. This study determined the cost of each concrete mixture and steel, selecting the optimal mixture based on both EC and material cost. Since the quantity of cement significantly affects EC emissions in a concrete mixture, it is essential to select appropriate plasticizers and concrete types. This study evaluated the C30, C40, C50, C60, and C70 mixtures. Among these, the C70 mixture demonstrated the best environmental impact and was the least expensive compared to the basic C40 mixture for the estimated quantities of concrete and steel. The estimated reductions in cost and environmental impact were 33% and 27%, respectively. This groundbreaking study paves the way for low-carbon structural design in large hotels across Saudi Arabia, offering valuable insights for future projects and contributing significantly to energy conservation.

Environmental consequences of shifting to timber construction: The case of Denmark

Many life cycle assessments (LCA) studies on wooden buildings show potential to decarbonise the building industry, though often neglecting to consider the systemic changes of such a shift at the building stock scale. This study applies a consequential LCA to evaluate the transition from conventional construction to increased wood-based construction in Denmark from 2022 to 2050. The assessment models a material flow analysis of the two construction scenarios, incorporating an area forecast and case buildings. By that, we assessed suppliers' capacity to likely meet the demand for wood, steel, and concrete, employed an input-output model to enhance completeness and country representativeness for other materials' markets, and considered the competition for land by indirect land use change. We implemented a dynamic IPCC-based assessment of GHG-emissions concurrently with a carbon forest model to anticipate the relationship between the delayed carbon storage resulting from using wood in buildings and forest regrowth management. The findings indicate wood construction is the most climate-friendly option for multifamily houses. In contrast, single-family houses (SFH) and office buildings (OB) exhibit the lowest climate impacts in the conventional scenario. The SFH result could be credible due to the sizable GWP impact gap between construction scenarios despite uncertainties related to the weight proportion of sedum roofs. The less conclusive OB findings relate to the substantial steel quantities in the wood case buildings, requiring further investigation. Generally, metals, cement-based- and biobased materials demonstrate the largest climate impact among the material categories. Across all three building typologies, the change to timber construction increased the impact on nature occupation (biodiversity). In conclusion, this study emphasises the need for further research on forest management model inputs, land use change approaches, potential steel suppliers' impact, and a broader array of case studies. It is because these are influential factors in facilitating informed decision-making of the increased implementation of wood in buildings. As the first study to integrate these modelling characteristics, it contributes to the research gap concerning geographical circumstances, forestry, and markets relevant to decision support for increased wood utilisation in Europe's building industry.

Prediction of Converter Tapping Weight Based on Principal Component Analysis–Whale Optimization Algorithm–Backpropagation Algorithm Neural Network Model

Tapping weight is an important parameter in converter blowing process, wherein precisely predicting the quantity of steel required in an alloy baking converter can effectively guide the requirement of alloy ingredients. In practical production, the main approach is empirical estimation, despite its low accuracy. Employing a general neural network model for prediction requires to gather the converter blowing parameters and endpoint temperature measurement sampling parameters as the model inputs. However, this data cannot be obtained until the blowing process reaches its endpoint, rendering it impractical for alloy batching that requires advance preparation for baking. In this study, a principal component analysis–whale optimization algorithm–backpropagation algorithm (PCA–WOA–BP) neural network tapping prediction model is developed using raw material parameters available before alloy baking as input. This model is integrated into the intelligent alloy reduction model of a factory. The model achieves a regression coefficient R2 of 0.823, with 98.53% of furnaces having a prediction error of less than 2 t. The tapping weight of 20 consecutive heats in actual production is predicted; the error range is less than 80% within 1 t, and the converter tapping weight is predicted accurately.

Automated system for high-accuracy quantity takeoff using BIM

Reliable construction project cost estimation relies on accurate quantity takeoffs (QTOs), traditionally done with error-prone 2-D drawings, but the emergence of Building Information Modeling (BIM) has improved QTO speed, accuracy, and reliability. However, the quality of BIM models can influence quantity accuracy, an aspect often overlooked in research on automating QTO with BIM. This paper develops an integrated framework to automatically extract and visualize construction quantities from BIM models. The system includes a Quantity Precision Check (QPC) module for automating more accurate QTO outputs. These outputs are then automatically transferred to an external database and visualized through a user-friendly dashboard on the Microsoft Power BI platform. This dashboard allows for comparisons between 2-D and BIM quantities and helps track changes in quantities over time due to design changes. The system was successfully validated in an infrastructure construction project in Canada, where it identified a 39% inconsistency in wall elements' material quantities and reduced steel quantity by 10% due to design changes. Overall, the system offers a speedy, reliable, and efficient tool for construction estimators, site managers, and cost control teams to provide accurate quantities to the procurement team and make swift decisions in response to design change impacts on construction costs.

Effect of TIG-Welding on the Structure and Mechanical Properties of Low-Cost Titanium Alloy Ti-2.8Al-5.1Mo-4.9Fe Welded Joints

Titanium alloys are widely used in aerospace, automotive, biomedical and marine engineering due to their good hot and cold processing properties, fracture toughness, high specific strength and good deformability. Nevertheless, titanium is also characterized by very high production costs, which are approximately 6 times and 30 times higher, respectively, in comparison to those to obtain the same quantity of aluminum or steel relegating titanium to high demanding sectors. One possible way to reduce the cost of titanium is to use cheaper alloying elements instead of vanadium or niobium to stabilize the body-centred-cubic (B.C.C) β-phase. TIG-welding of high-strength low-cost pseudo-β titanium alloys is complicated, primarily due to the high content of alloying elements, such as iron, molybdenum, as well as the use of oxygen as an alloying elements. By the correct choice of welding modes in most cases, it is possible to obtain welded joints of high-strength pseudo-β titanium alloys with good microstructure and mechanical properties. To study the influence of TIG welding on the structure and mechanical properties of low-cost titanium alloy Ti–2.8Al–5.1Mo–4.9Fe, two types of TIG-welding chosen: standard fusion TIG welding and TIG welding on the thin flux layer.

Innovative steel I-girder under bending having hollow tubular flanges

Hollow tubular flange girders (HTFG) overcome the weakness of the conventional I-sections to resist the lateral buckling. This leads to higher capacity, resulting in fewer steel quantities and reducing the carbon emissions from the steel industry. This paper presents a numerical analysis to investigate the behavior of HTFG under bending and validate the AISC design equations. The gain of the bending capacity is found similar in different flange classes but decreases with the reduction of the web class. The capacity for the compact section is higher than the yielding moment, but the section could not be fully yielded. The AISC in slender web is very conservative, unlike for non-compact web. Adjustments of the plastic limit and adaptation in terms of torsion constant are proposed, and the results show good agreement. The reduction of the embodied carbon caused by the material saving after using HTFG is calculated for a case study.

Structural analysis and design for a warehouse using STAAD PRO

Aim of this study is to brief about the pre-engineered buildings systems proposed for Warehouse Building. The need for steel building increased lot recently, due to its ease, faster construction and weight by strength ratio than concrete structures. There are so many software to analyse and design the elements but lot of students suffer from insufficient knowledge on calculating loads, load combinations and design parameters. Thus took an initiative to detail the design process with a warehouse study and created a report on its loads acting on the structures like vertical and lateral loads, load combinations with design aids provided in code which includes both ASCE standard and IS standards to design. The results obtained from analysis are within the limits also the designed elements are optimized by trial and error method which includes displacement, axial force, compression, bending along major and minor axis and shear check. Steel member sizes are fixed based on the utilization factor and quantity for steel members arrived. The required bolted or welded connections are designed based on the nodal reactions at structural element intersections. STAAD Pro Software used to construct, analyse and design the model of steel members. Moments are high compared to axial loads many elements are designed as tapered section to reduce the quantity of steel and maximize the efficiency with low cost. The overall steel poundage required is 27 kg/sqm to design the structure. The requirement of purlin weight reduced from 400 kN to 132 kN when replaced Channel section with Z-purlin. In overall, the advantages of Z purlins make them a popular choice for construction projects, particularly for industrial and commercial buildings. The results obtained are recorded for the study.

Engineering design of optimized reinforced concrete floor grillages

A new reinforced concrete beam grillage floor system is proposed as a lightweight alternative to traditional solid flat or waffle slabs used in construction. For the first time, beam grillage optimization has been paired with design code compliant floor plate design, for single and multi-bays of a building. The investigated floor slabs are novel, in that the depths of the grillage T-beams and their reinforcement are tailored for the local strength demands. This engineering efficiency gives rise to significant savings of approximately 40–50% in the quantities of concrete and steel needed compared to flat slabs. For the multi-bay studies, it was found that moving the location of the supporting columns could further decrease the volume of material required, by over 50% compared to a standard grid layout. Given the urgent need to reduce the volume of material consumed in construction projects, this appears to challenge traditional floorplate layouts. The research shows that digital optimization tools can be paired with standard design code rules to deliver significantly more sustainable building designs, though these benefits need to be balanced against the construction challenges associated with the more complex geometries that generally result.

Structural And Cost Analysis Of Reinforced Concrete And Steel Framed Structures: A Comparative Study In Lefkoşa, North Cyprus

The development of structural systems, materials, and analytical techniques have been used for designing different types of structures. Comparative studies of various buildings help identify the optimum choice depending on the project requirements and conditions. In this study, 8-story residential structures are designed in Lefkoşa, North Cyprus by steel and reinforced concrete frames with different load-resisting systems. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-19) and American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC-15th edition) are both followed and the response spectrum method (RSM) is employed while ETABS and SAP2000 are used for modeling and analyzing the structures. The results obtained are the base shear, story shear, displacement, axial forces, bending moments for selected columns, the quantity of steel, the quantity of concrete, and the quantity of formwork are compared for different structures. The result shows that the cost of steel structure is higher by around 13 % as compared to RC.

A Comparative Study on Performance of Conventional and Pre-Engineered Steel Frames Subjected to Crane Load

Abstract: Conventional steel frames are low rise steel frames with roofing systems of truss and roof coverings. Standard hot rolled sections are used for truss elements which are usually much heavier than what is actually required as per the design. Pre– Engineered steel frames are the steel frames in which excess steel is tapered as per the bending moment requirements. In present study, conventional (pratt type) steel roof truss and pre-engineered (portal type) steel roof frame with crane load is considered for an industrial warehouse construction located in Davangere city. 2D Modelling of both conventional and pre-engineered steel frame with crane load is done using STAAD Pro. software. Both the steel frames are subjected to different combinations of Dead load (DL), Live load(LL), Crane Load(CL) and Wind load(WL) as per IS 800 (2007) codal provisions. For the factored bending moments and shear force, referring IS 800 (2007) codal provisions, crane gantry girder is designed as a laterally unsupported member having a combination of I and channel sections. The members of both conventional and pre-engineered steel frames with crane load are designed for the worst load combination as per IS 800(2007) codal provisions. It is concluded that about 25% reduction in quantity of steel can be achieved by choosing pre-engineered steel frame than the conventional steel frame.

Hydrogen plasma smelting reduction process monitoring with optical emission spectroscopy – Establishing the basis for the method

In the world of ever-increasing demand for carbon-free steel, hydrogen and recycling have an undeniable role in achieving net-zero carbon dioxide emissions for the steel industry. However, even though steel is one of the most recycled materials globally, the quantity of steel that can be made from recycled steel will probably not match the demand in the future. This in turn means that steel must be also produced from the conventional resource, the iron ore. Hydrogen has been proposed as an environmentally friendly alternative to carbon as a reducing agent. To tackle the problems related to the usage of hydrogen for this purpose, hydrogen plasma smelting reduction has been studied extensively in the last few years. This article aims to provide means for process control of the hydrogen plasma, which may show erratic and chaotic behavior during the smelting process. The method used is optical emission spectroscopy, with which the plasma can be characterized, its composition can be evaluated, and its temporal evolution can be assessed. This study sheds light on how the plasma behaves with different electrode gaps and flow gas compositions together with how the position of the arc with respect to the center of the crucible can be assessed. In Ar/H2 plasma, the plasma temperatures derived with OES varied between 4000 and 10000 K, and up to a 26% decrease in electron density was observed when increasing the electrode gap in 1 cm increments.

VaclavSmilHow the World Really Works: A Scientist's Guide to Our Past, Present and FuturePenguin, 2022, 325 p., $28.00.

VaclavSmilHow the World Really Works: A Scientist's Guide to Our Past, Present and FuturePenguin, 2022, 325 p., $28.00.

Effect of Corrosion on Metals and Its Prevention

Corrosion of metal is a ubiquitous phenomenon that occurs in various paperwork. Atmospheric or uniform, galvanic, crevice, pitting, and microbial corrosion are maximum familiar styles of corrosion. The consequences of corrosion are many and varied and the outcomes of those at the safe, dependable and green operation of gadget or structures are frequently extra serious than the simple loss of a mass of metal. screw ups of various types and the need for highly-priced replacements may additionally occur even though the quantity of steel destroyed is pretty small.

A Comparative Study of Conventional Steel Building and Pre-Engineered Steel Building Structure using STAAD PRO

Abstract: Steel is generally used in all the industrial structures. The design of Pre-Engineered Building structures using tapered sections as the primary frames has saved quantity of steel substantially when comparing to the steel used on Conventional Steel Building structures. In this study, industrial building of different spans (10m, 15m, 20m, 25m, 30m, 40m & 50m) is analysed and designed according to the Indian Standards, IS 800-2007 using conventional hot rolled sections and PEB tapered sections. In this study, a relation is being made among the parameters of building to get the flow of pattern of steel reduction in the primary frames of different spans of structures. This study is carried out using STAAD PRO Connect edition. Keywords: Pre-Engineered Building, Conventional Steel Building, STAAD Pro, IS 800-2007, Tapered Section