Python Molurus Research Articles

Threatened Species of Amphibians and Reptiles from Vu Quang National Park and Their Conservation Values

Based on five field surveys in 2023 and 2024, we herein provide a list of 24 threatened species of amphibians and reptiles from Vu Quang National Park, Ha Tinh Province. Among them, four species are listed in the Governmental Decree No. 64/2019/ND-CP, 13 species are listed in the Governmental Decree No. 84/2021/ND-CP, 13 species are listed in the CITES Appendices, 17 species are listed in the Vietnam Red Data Book (2007), and 13 species are listed in the IUCN Red List (2024). Seven species with the highest level of conservation priority due to their small populations are Python molurus, Ophiophagus hannah, Platysternon megacephalum, Cuora cyclornata, Cuora galbinifrons, Sacalia quadriocellata, and Indotestudo elongata. The major threat to the herpetofauna of the national park is illegal hunting.

Ecological function maintained despite mesomammal declines

Mid-sized mammals (i.e., mesomammals) fulfill important ecological roles, serving as essential scavengers, predators, pollinators, and seed dispersers in the ecosystems they inhabit. Consequently, declines in mesomammal populations have the potential to alter ecological processes and fundamentally change ecosystems. However, ecosystems characterized by high functional redundancy, where multiple species can fulfil similar ecological roles, may be less impacted by the loss of mesomammals and other vertebrates. The Greater Everglades Ecosystem in southern Florida is a historically biodiverse region that has recently been impacted by multiple anthropogenic threats, most notably the introduction of the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus). Since pythons became established, mesomammal populations have become greatly reduced. To assess whether these declines in mesomammals have affected two critical ecosystem functions—scavenging and frugivory—we conducted experiments in areas where mesomammals were present and absent. We did not observe significant differences in scavenging or frugivory efficiency in areas with and without mesomammals, but we did observe significant differences in the communities responsible for scavenging and frugivory. Despite the observed evidence of redundancy, the changes in community composition could potentially lead to indirect consequences on processes like seed dispersal and disease dynamics within this ecosystem, emphasizing the need for further study.

Homing of translocated native Indian pythons in Moyar River Valley, South India

Homing is often a critical aspect of an animal's behavioural and spatial ecology. Translocation is considered to be a wildlife management strategy that could reduce human-wildlife confrontation, but this strategy may not be effective if animals attempt to home to their original capture location. Translocation of animals from sites where possible human-wildlife interaction occurs is a widespread but controversial intervention to resolve conflicts. In India, snakes are often the subject of such translocations, but there is a paucity of information on the behaviour of translocated snakes compared to resident snakes. The Indian python (Python molurus), one of the largest carnivores in the Indian subcontinent, is classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN. We conducted a two-year radio-tracking study (December 2018 to December 2020) on the movements of 14 adult Indian pythons in the Moyar River Valley, within the Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves. Eleven of the 14 pythons were translocated 0.28–55.7 kms from their capture locations, while 3 pythons were not translocated: 6 were translocated short distances (<5 km from capture; range 0.28–4.67 kms), 2 were translocated to medium distances (9–11 kms from capture location), and 3 were translocated to long distances (21–55.7 kms from capture location). Four of the six snakes translocated short distances all returned to within 500 m of their original capture locations, and all 6 returned over 60 % of the translocated distance to the initial capture location. Of the two snakes translocated medium distances, both returned to within 1.1 km of the capture location (∼90 % of the distance home). None of the three snakes that were translocated long distances successfully returned to their capture locations. Translocated pythons exhibited greater net movement distances than resident snakes within the first 2 months of release. Based on these results, long-distance translocation may be an effective strategy to minimize human-python conflict, while short or medium distance translocation is unlikely to be successful. However, more research is needed about the long-term survival of translocated snakes as well as soft-release methodologies that could prevent aberrant movement behaviour directly following release.

Psychic trauma causes increased impulsivity in a model of gambling addiction by altering dopamine and serotonin metabolism in the prefrontal cortex

BACKGROUND: Gambling addiction (gambling) involves frequently repeated episodes of gambling that are detrimental to social, professional, material, and family values. Gambling addiction is often combined with posttraumatic stress disorder.&#x0D; AIM: This study aimed to examine the effect of predator presentation stress on the manifestations of gambling addiction in an animal model in a test of probability and magnitude of reinforcement in the Iowa gambling task and monoamine metabolism in the prefrontal cortex of rats.&#x0D; MATERIALS AND METHODS: Rats were trained in a test of probability and magnitude of reinforcement in the Iowa gambling task in a 3-beam maze. Each run in arm 1 of the maze was reinforced with one sunflower seed, each second run in arm 2 with two seeds, and each third run in arm 3 with three seeds. Correspondingly, half of the runs in arm 2 and 2/3 of the runs in arm 3 were left unreinforced. After training, the animals were placed in a terrarium with a tiger python, one of which was victimized for its food requirements. On day 14 after predator presentation, dopamine and serotonin metabolism in the prefrontal cortex was determined using high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection.&#x0D; RESULTS: The levels of the dopamine metabolite dioxyphenylacetic acid and the ratio of dioxyphenylacetic acid to dopamine in the prefrontal cortex decreased. The levels of serotonin, its metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and the ratio of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid to serotonin in the prefrontal cortex were also decreased in rats after exposure to a predator. Moreover, predator presentation induced significant behavioral changes in rats, increasing impulsivity in making choices in a test of probability and magnitude of reinforcement in the Iowa gambling task. The acute vital stress of predator presentation increased the number of escapes to arm 3 of the maze, suggesting that the animals exhibited more risky behavior when choosing reinforcements of different strengths and probability.&#x0D; CONCLUSIONS: The animal model showed that the depletion of the dopaminergic and serotoninergic systems of the prefrontal cortex underlies pathological gambling addiction and inadequate decision-making caused by posttraumatic stress disorder.

The reduction in arterial pH with increased temperature is not affected by hyperoxia in toads (Rhinella marina) and pythons (Python molurus).

It is well established that arterial pH decreases with increased temperature in amphibians and reptiles through an elevation of arterial PCO2, but the underlying regulation remains controversial. The alphastat hypothesis ascribes the pH fall to a ventilatory regulation of protein ionisation, but the pH reduction with temperature is lower than predicted by the pKa change of the imidazole group on histidine. We hypothesised that arterial pH decreases at high, but not at low, temperatures when toads (Rhinella marina) and snakes (Python molurus) are exposed to hyperoxia. In toads, hyperoxia caused similar elevations of arterial PCO2at 20 and 30°C, indicative of a temperature-independent oxygen-mediated drive to breathing, whereas PCO2was unaffected by hyperoxia in snakes at 25 and 35°C. These findings do not support our hypothesis of an increased oxygen-mediated drive to breathing as body temperature increases.

Ultrasonographic evaluation of the liver and gallbladder and hepatic histogram of non-venomous snakes.

This study aimed to describe sonographic features of the liver, gallbladder and hepatic histogram from grey-scale ultrasound in three species of healthy non-venomous snakes. Twenty-eight adult snakes were enrolled in the study, including 10 common boas (Boa constrictor), eight black-tailed pythons (Python molurus) and 10 rainbow boas (Epicrates crassus). The snakes fasted for 30 days and were manually restrained while conscious. For B. constrictor and P. molurus the liver and gallbladder were best visualized in ventral recumbency, and E. crassus in dorsal recumbency. A single elongated hepatic lobe was identified in all snakes. The gallbladder was positioned caudal and separated from the liver, with an oval shape and homogeneous anechoic content in the lumen, and thin and regular walls. A region of interest by pixel number was chosen for the liver, fat bodies, left kidney, and splenopancreas. The mean grey level (G) of the organs had significant differences within each species. Standard deviation of grey levels (SG ) had significant differences within B. constrictor and E. crassus. P. molurus had no significant difference among organs. The comparison among snakes showed that E. crassus had G of liver and splenopancreas lower than B. constrictor and P. molurus. The SG of the liver in E. crassus was lowest compared to B. constrictor and P. molurus. P. molurus showed the highest values in mean of G and SG . In conclusion, despite the liver and gallbladder having similar sonographic features, the grey-level histogram showed that liver echotexture and echogenicity differ among species.

Microhabitat of Indian Rock Pythons (Python molurus) in Moyar River Valley, Tropical India

Microhabitat of Indian Rock Pythons (Python molurus) in Moyar River Valley, Tropical India

Seasonal Reptilian Diversity at Gautala Reserve Forest, Aurangabad (Maharashtra), India.

Reptiles are playing a vital role in ecology. These reptiles show a diverse range of habitat adaptations. They are dispersed in extreme desert conditions as well as in low-temperature areas and they are broadly dispersed across the world. The occurrence of reptiles is a sign of rich biodiversity and ecology. To assess the distribution of the reptile species in a given area, a reptilian species survey was carried out in the Gautala Reserve Forest, where 15 different spots were selected during the rainy, winter, and summer seasons. A checklist was created for the period of 2017-2018. During the investigation, a total of 28 species of reptiles from 6 families were found. The transect method was used to sample direct and indirect evidence of reptilian species. This paper discusses seasonal variations in reptilian diversity and statistical analysis methods. The Boidae family has fewer species than various other families, compared to the huge number of species of the Colubridae family reported in the current study. According to the IUCN, Three species of reptiles, the Common Sand Boa (Gongylophis Conicus), India Rock Python (Python molurus molurus), and John's Sand Boa (Eryx johnii), are Near Threatened (NT- Decreasing), and one species of reptile, the Gunther's Racer (Coluber gracilis), is Data Deficient (DD-Unknown). The remaining 24 species of reptiles are considered Least Concerned. Baseline information on the resilience of these reptile species was collected for the current investigation. These details will be useful for future planning on the preservation of reptile diversity.

Home range ecology of Indian rock pythons (Python molurus) in Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves, Tamil Nadu, Southern India

The Indian rock pythons (Python molurus) are classified as a near-threatened snake species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN); they are native to the Indian subcontinent and have experienced population declines caused primarily by poaching and habitat loss. We hand-captured the 14 rock pythons from villages, agricultural lands, and core forests to examine the species' home ranges. We later released/translocated them in different kilometer ranges at the Tiger Reserves. From December 2018 to December 2020, we obtained 401 radio-telemetry locations, with an average tracking duration of (444 ± 212 days), and a mean of 29 ± SD 16 data points per individual. We quantified home ranges and measured morphometric and ecological factors (sex, body size, and location) associated with intraspecific differences in home range size. We analyzed the home ranges of rock pythons using Auto correlated Kernel Density Estimates (AKDE). AKDEs can account for the auto-correlated nature of animal movement data and mitigate against biases stemming from inconsistent tracking time lags. Home range size varied from 1.4 ha to 8.1 km2 and averaged 4.2 km2. Differences in home range sizes could not be connected to body mass. Initial indications suggest that rock python home ranges are larger than other pythons.

A rock python (Python molurus) predates on a porcupine (Hystrix indica)

The endemic Sri Lankan subspecies of rock python, Python molurus pimbura is the largest snake found in Sri Lanka. Though distributed island wide, it is listed as Near Threatened due to the rapid population decline. This is a common victim of illegal trade (as pets and for skin/meat). The prey items of the rock python are poorly documented, but it is not unusual for them to take difficult prey such as porcupines. In India, Bhupathy &amp; Vijayan (1989) observed 14% of the python diet was porcupines, but this is a rare observation for Sri Lanka. The Indian crested porcupine, Hystrix indica is the largest and a most widely distributed rodent in Sri Lanka. They live in large burrows dug deep into the ground and give birth to 2–4 young at a time. Predations on porcupines are rare because of their sharp quills, so predators do not attack unless starving.

Indian Rock Python (Python molurus) preying on a Mottled Wood Owl (Strix ocellata) at Girnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Gujarat, India

Indian Rock Python (Python molurus) preying on a Mottled Wood Owl (Strix ocellata) at Girnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Gujarat, India

Detection of nidoviruses in samples collected from captive snakes in Europe between 2016 and 2021.

Nidoviruses are increasingly detected in various snake species worldwide, but much remains to be learned about their distribution and the factors influencing their epidemiology. This retrospective study evaluated the results of routine nidovirus testing, by PCR, of 5210 swab samples from pet snakes from various European countries that were submitted to a commercial veterinary laboratory in Germany between 2016 and 2021. The overall detection rate was 19.96%. However, the detection rate varied significantly depending on the snake species (p < 0.0001), with the highest rate in Indian pythons (Python molurus) (42.24%). Rates also varied depending on the season of sample collection (p < 0.0001), with the highest rate in winter (24.46%), and the country of sample origin (p < 0.0001), with the highest rate in Austria (36.69%). The detection rate also decreased significantly (p = 0.0003) over the 6-year observation period, from 26.43% to 17.64%. No information on clinical signs was available for most of the sampled snakes. The present study supplies new information on the distribution of python nidoviruses (subgenus Roypretovirus) in pet snakes in Europe and indicates a dynamic situation with possible changes in prevalence over time.

Burmese pythons in Florida: A synthesis of biology, impacts, and management tools

Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus) are native to southeastern Asia, however, there is an established invasive population inhabiting much of southern Florida throughout the Greater Everglades Ecosystem. Pythons have severely impacted native species and ecosystems in Florida and represent one of the most intractable invasive-species management issues across the globe. The difficulty stems from a unique combination of inaccessible habitat and the cryptic and resilient nature of pythons that thrive in the subtropical environment of southern Florida, rendering them extremely challenging to detect. Here we provide a comprehensive review and synthesis of the science relevant to managing invasive Burmese pythons. We describe existing control tools and review challenges to productive research, identifying key knowledge gaps that would improve future research and decision making for python control.

Surgical management of luxated mandible and lacerated jaw in an Indian rock python (Python molurus molurus)

Surgical management of luxated mandible and lacerated jaw in an Indian rock python (Python molurus molurus)

Size distribution and reproductive phenology of the invasive Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus) in the Greater Everglades Ecosystem, Florida, USA

The design of successful invasive species control programs is often hindered by the absence of basic demographic data on the targeted population. Establishment of invasive Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivittatus) in the Greater Everglades Ecosystem, Florida USA has led to local precipitous declines (&amp;gt; 90%) of mesomammal populations and is also a major threat to native populations of reptiles and birds. Efforts to control this species are ongoing but are hampered by the lack of access to and information on the expected biological patterns of pythons in southern Florida. We present data from more than 4,000 wild Burmese pythons that were removed in southern Florida over 26 years (1995–2021), the most robust dataset representing this invasive population to date. We used these data to characterize Burmese python size distribution, size at maturity, clutch size, and seasonal demographic and reproductive trends. We broadened the previously described size ranges by sex and, based on our newly defined size-stage classes, showed that males are smaller than females at sexual maturity, confirmed a positive correlation between maternal body size and potential clutch size, and developed predictive equations to facilitate demographic predictions. We also refined the annual breeding season (approx.100 days December into March), oviposition timing (May), and hatchling emergence and dispersal period (July through October) using correlations of capture morphometrics with observations of seasonal gonadal recrudescence (resurgence) and regression. Determination of reproductive output and timing can inform population models and help managers arrest population growth by targeting key aspects of python life history. These results define characteristics of the species in Florida and provide an enhanced understanding of the ecology and reproductive biology of Burmese pythons in their invasive Everglades range.

Utility of the burmese Python as a model for studying plasticity of extreme physiological systems.

Non-traditional animal models present an opportunity to discover novel biology that has evolved to allow such animals to survive in extreme environments. One striking example is the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus), which exhibits extreme physiological adaptation in various metabolic organs after consuming a large meal following long periods of fasting. The response to such a large meal in pythons involves a dramatic surge in metabolic rate, lipid overload in plasma, and massive but reversible organ growth through the course of digestion. Multiple studies have reported the physiological responses in post-prandial pythons, while the specific molecular control of these processes is less well-studied. Investigating the mechanisms that coordinate organ growth and adaptive responses offers the opportunity to gain novel insight that may be able to treat various pathologies in humans. Here, we summarize past research on the post-prandial physiological changes in the Burmese python with a focus on the gastrointestinal tract, heart, and liver. Specifically, we address our recent molecular discoveries in the post-prandial python liver which demonstrate transient adaptations that may reveal new therapeutic targets. Lastly, we explore new biology of the aquaporin 7 gene that is potently upregulated in mammalian cardiac myocytes by circulating factors in post-prandial python plasma.

The effect of vital stress on the bioelectric activity of the brain and the behavior of female rats

BACKGROUND: Identification of possible biomarkers that assess the severity of post-traumatic stress symptoms is an urgent task for the early diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorders. The manifestation of emotional states, both human and animal, is reflected in altered behavior and in the violation of the ratio of basic rhythms and cross-correlation connections in the brain electroencephalogram, which indicates the development of pathological processes.&#x0D; AIM: The aim of the study was to analyze the behavior and electrocorticogram indicators of rats in the delayed period (on day 7) after life-threatening stress, as a way to predict the formation of post-traumatic stress disorder.&#x0D; MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was performed on mature female Wistar rats weighing 180200 g (n = 40). Mental trauma was modeled by the circumstances of experiencing the situation of the death of a partner from the action of a predator and the threat to their own life when placing rats in a terrarium with a tiger python. In rats, the behavior in the Open Field test and the bioelectric activity of the brain in the frontal and occipital regions on the left and right were analyzed before and on the 7th day after stress exposure.&#x0D; RESULTS: It is shown that in the delayed period after vital stress in female rats, there is a decrease in motor and research activity and altered emotional behavior in the Open Field test. Reduction of interhemispheric asymmetry in the index of theta and delta activity and changes in cross-correlation connections in the right hemisphere, as well as changes in the ratio of the main rhythms and cross-correlation connections of the electroencephalography. The revealed changes in the delayed period indicate a pronounced aversive nature of the psychotraumatic effect.&#x0D; CONCLUSIONS: Life-threatening stress is caused by changes in electrophysiological and behavioral parameters in experimental animals not only at the time of exposure, but also in the long-term period.

Present Status, Challenges and Prospects of Snake Farming in Bangladesh

Venomous snakes are one of the most dreadful animals globally that kill their victims by injecting venoms (toxic substances) using fangs. However, snakes are being used for numerous vital life-saving purposes, including antivenom and traditional medicines, pain killers, cancer treatment, cardiac arrest, paralysis, arthritis, anti-ageing, and cosmetics to leather products, foods, display and research. This study was conducted to investigate the current status, challenges and prospects of snake farming in Bangladesh using self-structured questionnaires surveys. In this study, in total, 281 snakes belonging to 12 species i.e., common krait Bungarus caeruleus, banded krait B. fasciatus, greater black krait Bungarus niger, monocled cobra Naja kaouthia, spectacled cobra Naja naja, king cobra Ophiophagus hannah, russell's viper Daboia russelii, indian python Python molurus, common sand boa Eryx conicus, common cat snake Boiga trigonata, common wolf snake Lycodon aulicus and rat snake Ptyas mucosa were observed. This study also showed that the largest snake farm was at Patuakhali, where about 231 venomous snake individuals were reared, while 35 snakes were reared in Rajshahi farm, eight and seven snakes were reared in Rajbari and Gazipur farms, respectively. These snakes were collected from snake catchers/charmers and rescued from several places and nature. Snakes were fed on natural feeds (toad, frog, rat, and snake) and chickens. These farms had small to medium tin-shed building infrastructure with minimal facilities and used tanks, cages, and vivaria for snake rearing, breeding, and displaying. Snake farmers had not received any training, but some skilled snake handlers operated these farms. These snake farms did not keep managemental activities records and lack of proper design. These were not collected and preserved snake venom and were mainly involved in snake displaying. Although this study did not explore much information but snake farming may have great potential in Bangladesh; thus, more research is warranted on proper snake farming facilities. However, the government could be initiated the establishment of a modern and sophisticated snake farm for research, development, conservation, and venom collection including antivenom production and pharmaceutical purposes. Hence, the existing snake resources and skilled professionals may assist the government in snake farming activities. Bangladesh J. Zool. 50 (1): 121-133, 2022

Effect of orexin and its antagonist on the organization of emotional and exploratory behavior of rats in a model of psychic trauma

BACKGROUND: A number of recent studies have revealed the role of orexins in regulating emotional behavior and emotional memory. The rationale for this role of orexin regulation is the close bi-directional interaction of orexin neurons with emotional structures of the brain, such as the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, locus ceruleus, central and dorsomedial amygdala, hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex. There is experimental and clinical evidence that an endogenous or induced deficiency of orexin effects accelerates the elimination of traumatic memory.&#x0D; AIM: To study the effect of the OX1R Orexin Receptor Antagonist SB408124 and orexin on the emotional and exploratory behavior of animals after predator-induced stress.&#x0D; MATERIALS AND METHODS: The experiments were made with 36 male Wistar rats, divided into 4 groups of 8 animals. Animals of 3 groups were exposed to single simulation of post-traumatic stress disorder by exposition with the indian python and subsequent death of one rat as a result of predator activity. The rats of 2 experimental groups received SB408124 OX1R antagonist in a dose of 20 l of 0.1% solution and Orexin A in the same dose intranasally. The other animals received physiological solution in a dose of 20 l intranasally. Behavior tests was made 7 days after the modeling of psychotrauma. A panel of behavioral tests was used: an elevated X-maze, an open field test, and an residentintruder test. The obtained data were statistically processed using the Student t-test and ANOVA dispersion analysis. The differences were considered statistically significant at p 0.01.&#x0D; RESULTS: Orexin antagonist SB408124 showed anxiolytic effects. SB408124 showed anxiolytic properties in stressed rats. It restored the time spent in the light arm of the elevated X-maze to the intact level. In the open field test SB408124 increased (p 0.01) the orientation behavior and reduced the frequency of freezing in stressed animals. Orexin A suppressed (p 0,01) locomotor activity of animals in the open field. In the residentintruder test in stressed animals SB408124 restored suppressed communication activity (p 0,01). Orexin A reduced communicative behavior and increased aggression of animals.&#x0D; CONCLUSIONS: The work shows a moderate anxiolytic action of SB408124 in the post-traumatic stress model in rats.

Pit organ-based infrared discrimination sensitivity and signal transduction in the Burmese python (Python molurus bivitattus)

Burmese pythons (Python molurus bivitattus) use a unique infrared (IR) targeting system to acquire prey, avoid predators and seek thermoregulatory sites through detection of IR energy in the environment. Previous studies of sensitivity of the python IR system that relied on analysis of complex, natural behaviors lacked robust, reliable responses in animals habituated to experiments, and in vitro electrophysiological study failed to test behavioral function of the implicated protein thermoreceptor, TRPA1. The present study used conditioned discrimination procedures to analyze behavioral sensitivity and signal transduction in the python IR system. Pythons trained to behaviorally discriminate thermal stimuli averaged 70% correct choices, but failed to make correct choices when pit organs were physically occluded with IR-blocking material. The pythons exhibited greater sensitivity to thermal stimuli than previously reported, evident by correct choices that exceeded chance in response to a 14 × 10−6 W cm−2 irradiance contrast, or 0.5 °C thermal differential. Finally, in a test of the behavioral role of the putative thermoreceptor protein TRPA1, despite pit organ treatment with a TRPA1 inhibitor, python performance exceeded chance and was similar to baseline discrimination and control trials. Collectively, the results suggest that the IR system is a high sensitivity, broad-spectrum thermosensor that may operate through different and/or multiple thermoreceptive proteins with overlapping spectral response profiles. The findings reported here provide a better understanding of the relationship between the brain, behavior and environment in driving survival and ecological success of the Burmese python, especially as an invasive megapredator in the southern United States.